Exodus

Exodus tells the story of how the Lord delivered his people from slavery in Egypt, led them to Mt. Sinai, entered afresh into covenant relationship with them, and came to dwell in their midst in his tabernacle. The key human figure in the story is Moses, whom God raises up as Israel’s deliverer and who serves as God’s prophet, passing on his words to the people. At different points, the Lord explicitly commands Moses to write down what he was eyewitness to (17:14) or what he received as divine revelation (24:4, 7; 34:2–28). This presumably sets a pattern he followed with other events he was eyewitness to (such as Exod 3–19, 32–40) or other divine revelation he received (such as Exod 25–31), making him the book’s primary author. This also means the Israelites coming out of Egypt were the book’s primary audience, and this audience should be kept in mind when reading the book. In other words, our first question of any passage should be, “What would this have meant for Israel, wandering about in the wilderness?” Only then are we ready to ask, “And so what does this mean for us today?”

Scholars debate the exact date of the book’s events. Since the Merneptah Stela (1207 BC) mentions Israel as one of Canaan’s inhabitants, the exodus must have happened before that date. Based on 1 Kings 6:1, which states that Solomon began building the temple in year four of his reign (c. 966 B.C.), and that this was 480 years after the exodus, the exodus has traditionally been placed at 1446 B.C. Others, however, suggest that the store city “Raamses” (Exod 1:11) points to Ramesses II, who reigned in the thirteenth century B.C., placing the exodus at that time. (In this case, the “480 years” of 1Kgs 6:1 is understood to be symbolic.) Conservative scholars have tended toward the earlier date, though they may also be found among those favoring the later date.¹ Both options place the exodus sometime in the fifteenth through thirteenth centuries B.C.

At least four themes in Exodus focus on God’s character. One of the first we see is that God is faithful to his covenant promises. As Exodus begins, we are told that the Lord is going to deliver Israel from their trials because he “remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob” (2:24). When he makes a promise, he keeps it. The rest of Exodus makes this clear in the ways it shows how the Lord begins to fulfill the promises he made to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.

A second theme is his sovereign power, which demonstrates that he is the true and sole King of both heaven and earth. Note that the strikes he brings on Egypt show that he is the true and sole King of heaven because the Egyptians’ so-called “gods” are powerless before him (see at 7:8–13; 10:21–29; 12:12; 15:11). Jethro, after hearing of the Lord’s mighty redemption of Israel, states it succinctly: “Now I know that the Lord is greater than all gods” (18:11a). But the Lord’s defeat of Pharaoh and all his forces—the most powerful on the planet—shows that he is also the true and sole King of earth, the one before whom all other kings must bow in reverence (see at 7:1–5; 9:13–30). The song celebrating the Lord’s defeat of Egypt and his rescue of Israel captures it beautifully: “The Lord will reign forever and ever” (15:18). He is the true and sole King of heaven and earth who reigns in sovereign majesty and might.But the Lord is not simply a King of power. A third theme is his desire to be with his people (he is a King of presence), and a fourth is his kind and merciful nature (he is a King of faithful love). In terms of his presence, the Lord states that one of the very reasons he redeemed Israel was to dwell in their midst: “I will dwell among the people of Israel and will be their God. And they shall know that I am the Lord their God, who brought them out of the land of Egypt that I might dwell among them. I am the Lord their God” (29:45–46, emphasis mine). For the Lord, redemption is always for the sake of relationship.In terms of his kind and merciful nature, when the Lord describes his character to Moses, his description begins and focuses on the fact he is merciful, gracious, slow to anger, abounds in steadfast love and faithfulness, and keeps steadfast love and forgives iniquity (34:6–7a). Yes, he also brings discipline to bear on sin—as any loving parent does (34:7b). But the focus of his description is on his mercy and grace. His heart’s first impulse toward his people is not judgment but faithful, kind, forgiving love (see further at 34:5–7). In fact, this explains his desire to be with his people: we long to be near those we love.In short, the Lord is the sole and true King of heaven and earth who keeps his covenant promises, longs to be with his people, and overflows with merciful and forgiving love towards them. He also gives his people a mission, which leads to a final theme that focuses on who he wants his people to be.The Lord states Israel’s mission succinctly in 19:6: “You shall be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.” The call to be a holy nation is a call to obedient living, which the Lord emphasizes in different ways throughout the book, from calls to obedience (19:5; 20:20; 23:21a), to commended examples of obedience (38:22; 39:1, 5, 7, 42; 40:16), to warnings against disobedience (23:21b; 34:7b), to the discipline and judgment that comes for disobeying (32:25–29, 35). Clearly, the Lord wants his people to be faithful, and this is true not just in terms of general obedience to his covenant commands, but specifically in terms of being faithful to serve and worship him alone. The Ten Commandments thus begin with two that require Israel to worship the Lord alone (20:3–6), and this command is reinforced multiple times throughout the book (20:22–23; 23:23–25, 32–33; 32:7–10, 25–29; 34:11–17). He is the King, and Israel is to be his faithful servant. He is the Father, and Israel is to be his obedient son. He is the Husband, and Israel is to be his faithful wife. Israel’s need for faithful obedience is thus a major theme explaining who the Lord wants his people to be.Importantly, Israel’s obedience was to have a missional thrust. They were not simply to be a “holy nation” but also a “kingdom of priests.” These two identities go together. As I have noted elsewhere:The language of priesthood and holy nation . . . points to Israel’s role in the Lord’s world. Within Israel, the Lord’s priests are to live holy lives, teaching the Israelites his ways and helping them to know how to have relationship with him (Lev 10:10–11; 21:1–23). Israel is to do the same within the world. This would especially happen by embodying the Lord’s holy character in their own lives, thereby showing others the beauty and glory of who he is (Lev 19:2; 20:26). Put differently, Israel is not simply to be the Lord’s treasured servant; they are to help the world understand why the Lord is to be treasured. Peter makes this very point to early Christians when referring back to this passage: “But you are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for his own possession, that you may proclaim the excellencies of him who called you out of darkness into his marvelous light” (1 Pet 2:9). To enter into the Lord’s care is to receive his commission to help his world know, worship, obey and love him.² The final picture of the Lord that Exodus gives us is one of a God who is the true and sole King of heaven and earth, full of majesty and might, yet overflowing with mercy and forgiveness and kindness and love, longing to be with his people and calling them to embody in this world his very character, for his glory, their good, and the world’s blessing. (For ways in which some of the above themes relate to the person and work of Jesus, see at 15:19–21; 25:8–9; 29:43–46; 30:22; 32:25–29; 34:33–35; 40:36–38.)

The purpose of Exodus is to reveal God’s character and his will for his people, Israel. Stated differently, its goal is to make clear who God is and who he wants his people to be. It achieves this purpose and goal by focusing on various themes.

The following key verses well represent the book’s themes:

“You yourselves have seen what I did to the Egyptians, and how I bore you on eagles’ wings and brought you to myself. Now therefore, if you will indeed obey my voice and keep my covenant, you shall be my treasured possession among all peoples, for all the earth is mine; and you shall be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.”

— Exodus 19:4–6a

“I will dwell among the people of Israel and will be their God. And they shall know that I am the Lord their God, who brought them out of the land of Egypt that I might dwell among them. I am the Lord their God.”

— Exodus 29:45–46, ESV

“The Lord passed before him and proclaimed, ‘The Lord, the Lord, a God merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness, keeping steadfast love for thousands, forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin, but who will by no means clear the guilty, visiting the iniquity of the fathers on the children and the children’s children, to the third and the fourth generation.’”

— Exodus 34:6–7

I. The Israelites in Egypt: The Lord’s Promise of Deliverance (1:1–11:10)

A. The Israelites’ Suffering and Need of a Deliverer (1:1–2:22)

i. The Pharaoh Tries to Destroy Fruitful Israel (1:1–22)

ii. The Introduction of Israel’s Deliverer (2:1–22)

B. The Lord Calls Israel’s Deliverer: Moses (2:23–4:17)

i. The Lord Remembers the Israelites and His Covenant with Them (2:23–25)

ii. The Lord Calls Moses to Be the Israelites’ Deliverer (3:1–4:17)

C. Moses Goes Back to Egypt (4:18–31)

i. Moses Returns to Egypt (4:18–26)

ii. Moses and Aaron Announce Deliverance to the Israelites (4:27–31)

D. Pharaoh’s Oppression and the Lord’s Promise of Deliverance (5:1–6:9)

i. Pharaoh Refuses the Lord’s Command; the People Turn on Moses and Aaron (5:1–21)

ii. The Lord’s Promise of Deliverance and the People’s Despair (5:22–6:9)

E. Introduction to the Coming Deliverance (6:10–7:7)

i. The Lord Commands Moses to Confront Pharaoh (6:10–12)

ii. The Genealogy of Moses and Aaron (6:13–27)

iii. The Lord Commands Moses to Confront Pharaoh and Foretells What Is to Come (6:28–7:7)

F. Through Miraculous Signs of Judgment, the Lord Reveals His Sovereign Power over Pharaoh and Egyptian Gods (7:8–11:10)

i. First Sign: Aaron’s Rod Swallows Pharaoh’s Servants’ Rods (7:8–13)

ii. Second Sign, First Strike: Water to Blood (7:14–25)

iii. Third Sign, Second Strike: Frog Infestation (8:1–15)

iv. Fourth Sign, Third Strike: Gnat Infestation (8:16–19)

v. Fifth Sign, Fourth Strike: Fly Infestation (8:20–32)

vi. Sixth Sign, Fifth Strike: Egyptian Livestock Die (9:1–7)

vii. Seventh Sign, Sixth Strike: Boils (9:8–12)

viii. Eighth Sign, Seventh Strike: Hail (9:13–35)

ix. Ninth Sign, Eighth Strike: Locusts (10:1–20)

x. Tenth Sign, Ninth Strike: Darkness (10:21–29)

xi. Foretelling the Eleventh Sign, Tenth Strike: Death of the Firstborn (11:1–10)

II. The Israelites Leave Egypt: The Lord’s Deliverance (12:1–15:22)

A. The Israelites Leave Egypt and Receive Instructions for Commemorating Their Deliverance (12:1–13:16)

i. Instructions for Passover (12:1–13)

ii. Instructions for the Feast of Unleavened Bread (12:14–20)

iii. Moses Gives the Israelites the Passover Instructions (12:21–28)

iv. The Eleventh Sign, Tenth Strike Happens, and the Israelites Leave Egypt (12:29–42)

v. Further Passover Instructions (12:43–50)

vi. The Consecration of the Firstborn and Further Instructions on the Feast of Unleavened Bread (12:51–13:16)

B. The Lord’s Final Defeat of Pharaoh as He Leads the Israelites out of Egypt (13:17–15:21)

i. Initial Departure Route and the Lord’s Leading by the Cloud (13:17–22)

ii. The Lord Delivers His People through the Sea and Drowns Pharaoh’s Army in It (14:1–31)

iii. The Israelites Sing of the Lord’s Deliverance (15:1–21)

III. The Israelites Head towards Sinai and Are Tested by the Lord (15:22–17:16)

A. Three Stories of Wilderness Testing and the Lord’s Provision (15:22–17:7)

i. The Lord Tests the Israelites: No Water (15:22–27)

ii. The Lord Tests the Israelites: No Food (16:1–36)

iii. The Israelites Test the Lord: Is He among Them? (17:1–7)

B. The Israelites Defeat Amalek with the Lord’s Help (17:8–16)

IV. The Israelites Arrive at Sinai (18:1–19:25)

A. Jethro Praises the Lord and Gives Counsel to Moses (18:1–27)

i. Jethro Praises the Lord (18:1–12)

ii. Jethro Counsels Moses about Administering the Law (18:13–27)

B. The Lord Invites the Israelites into Covenant Relationship and Appears on Mt. Sinai (19:1–25)

i. The Lord’s Invitation into Covenant Relationship (19:1–6)

ii. The People Prepare for the Lord’s Appearing (19:7–15)

iii. The Lord Appears on Mt. Sinai (19:16–25)

V. The Giving of the Covenant Law and Confirmation of the Sinai Covenant (20:1–24:11)

A. The Foundation of Covenant Law: The Ten Commandments (20:1–21)

i. Historical Prologue (20:1–2)

ii. The Ten Commandments (20:3–17)

iii. The People Ask Moses to Be the Mediator of the Lord’s Voice (20:18–21)

B. Introduction to the Remaining Covenant Laws: Proper Worship (20:22–26)

C. Further Covenant Laws for the People (21:1–23:19)

i. Laws on Servitude: Male Servants (21:1–6)

ii. Laws on Servitude: Female Servants (21:7–11)

iii. Laws Whose Penalty Is Capital (21:12–17)

iv. Laws on Harm from One Person to Another (21:18–27)

v. Laws on Harm from an Animal to a Person (21:28–32)

vi. Laws on Harmed or Stolen Property (21:33–22:15)

vii. A Law on the Seduction of an Unbetrothed Virgin (22:16–17)

viii. Further Laws Whose Penalty Is Capital (22:18–20)

ix. Laws on Dealing Justly and Compassionately with the Disadvantaged (22:21–27)

x. Laws on Honoring Divine and Earthly Authorities (22:28–31)

xi. Laws on Impartial Justice and Practical Love of Enemies (23:1–9)

xii. Laws on the Sabbath Year, Sabbath Day, and Religious Feasts (23:10–19)

D. Concluding Exhortations to Obedience and Promises of Blessing (23:20–33)

E. The Covenant Is Confirmed (24:1–11)

VI. The Israelites at Sinai: The Covenant Tablets and the Lord’s Instructions for Building His Tabernacle in Israel’s Midst (24:12–31:18)

A. Moses Goes up the Mountain to Receive the Covenant Tablets from the Lord (24:12–18)

B. The Contributions Needed for the Tabernacle (25:1–9)

i. A Contribution to Be Received from Those Willing of Heart (25:1–2)

ii. The Materials of the Contribution (25:3–7)

iii. The Purpose of the Contribution (25:8–9)

C. Instructions for Building the Tabernacle (25:10–27:21)

i. The Ark of the Covenant (25:10–22)

ii. The Golden Table (25:23–30)

iii. The Golden Lampstand (25:31–40)

iv. The Tabernacle’s Four Coverings (26:1–14)

v. The Tabernacle Structure (26:15–30)

vi. The Veil (26:31–35)

vii. The Screen (26:36–37)

viii. The Altar of Burnt Offering (27:1- 8)

ix. The Courtyard (27:9–19)

x. Oil for the Golden Lampstand (27:20–21)

D. The Priestly Garments (28:1–43)

i. Introduction (28:1–4)

ii. The High Priest’s Garments (28:5–39)

iii. The Priests’ Garments (28:40)

iv. The Priestly Garments’ Purpose (28:41)

v. Priestly Undergarments (28:42–43)

E. The Priestly Ordination Ceremony (29:1–35)

i. Introduction (29:1–3)

ii. The Ordination Ceremony (29:4–35)

iii. The Altar of Burnt Offering and Its Offerings (29:36–42)

iv. Summary of the Tabernacle’s Purpose (29:43–46)

F. Instructions for Other Items Used at or for the Tabernacle (30:1–38)

i. The Golden Incense Altar (30:1–10)

ii. The Census Tax (30:11–16)

iii. The Bronze Basin (30:17–21)

iv. The Holy Anointing Oil and Holy Incense (30:22–38)

G. The Divinely Gifted Tabernacle Artisans (31:1–11)

i. Bezalel (31:1–5)

ii. Oholiab (31:6a)

iii. Other Gifted Artisans (31:6b)

iv. The Items to Be Made (31:7–11)

H. The Importance of Keeping Sabbath, The Covenant Sign (31:12–17)

i. Command and First Rationale (31:12–13)

ii. Command, Second Rationale, and Penalty (31:14–15)

iii. Command and First Rationale (31:16–17)

I. The Lord Gives Moses the Stone Tables of the Covenant (31:18)

VII. The Israelites at Sinai: The Israelites Treacherously Break the Covenant; The Lord Mercifully Renews the Covenant (32:1–34:35)

A. The Israelites’ Idolatry, the Lord’s Anger, and Moses’s Intercession on Their Behalf So They Are Not Destroyed (32:1–14)

i. The Israelites Worship the Golden Calf (32:1–6)

ii. The Lord Decrees Their Destruction (32:7–10)

iii. Moses Intercedes on the People’s Behalf (32:11–14)

B. Moses Destroys the Idol, Confronts Aaron, and Calls for Judgment (32:15–29)

i. Moses Destroys the Calf (32:15–20)

ii. Moses Confronts Aaron (32:21–24)

iii. Moses Calls for Judgment (32:25–29)

C. Moses Intercedes a Second Time for the People, and the Lord Renews the Patriarchal Promise of Land (32:30–33:6)

i. Moses Intercedes on the People’s Behalf (32:30–32)

ii. The Lord’s Response (32:33–34)

iii. The Lord’s Judgment (32:35)

iv. The Lord’s Further Response (33:1–3)

v. The People’s Response (33:4–6)

D. Moses Intercedes a Third Time for the People, and the Lord Promises to Go in Their Midst (33:7–17)

i. Aside: The Place he Intercedes: the First “Tent of Meeting” (33:7–11)

ii. Moses Intercedes on the People’s Behalf (33:12–17)

E. Moses Asks to See the Lord’s glory (33:18–23)

i. Moses’s Request (33:18)

ii. The Lord’s Response (33:19–23)

F. The Lord Reveals His Glory (34:1–8)

i. How Moses Is to Prepare (34:1–3)

ii. Moses Obeys (34:4)

iii. The Lord Appears and Proclaims His Name (34:5–7)

iv. Moses’s Response (34:8)

G. Moses Intercedes a Fourth Time for the People, and the Covenant Is Renewed (34:9–28)

i. Moses Intercedes on the People’s Behalf (34:9)

ii. The Covenant Is Renewed (34:10–28)

H. Moses’s Shining Face (34:29–35)

i. Moses’s Face Shines (34:29–32)

ii. Moses’s Use of the Veil (34:33–35)

VIII. The Israelites at Sinai: The Lord’s Tabernacle Is Built, and He Comes to Dwell among His Covenant People (35:1–40:38)

A. Introduction (35:1)

B. The Importance of Keeping Sabbath, the Covenant Sign (35:2–3)

C. Collecting the Tabernacle Materials (35:4–36:7)

i. The Contributions Needed for the Tabernacle (35:4–9)

ii. The Tabernacle Items to Be Made (35:10–19)

iii. The Bringing of the Tabernacle Contributions (35:20–29)

iv. The God-Gifted Tabernacle Artisans (35:30–36:1)

v. The Command to Stop Bringing Tabernacle Contributions (36:2–7)

D. Making the Tabernacle and Its Related Components (36:8–39:43)

i. The Tabernacle’s Four Coverings (36:8–19)

ii. The Tabernacle Structure (36:20–34)

iii. The Veil (36:35–36)

iv. The Screen (36:37–38)

v. The Ark of the Covenant (37:1–9)

vi. The Golden Table (37:10–16)

vii. The Golden Lampstand (37:17–24)

viii. The Golden Incense Altar (37:25–28)

ix. The Holy Anointing Oil and Holy Incense (37:29)

x. The Altar of Burnt Offering (38:1–7)

xi. The Bronze Basin (38:8)

xii. The Courtyard (38:9–20)

xiii. The Tabernacle Donations (38:21–31)

xiv. The Priestly Garments (39:1–31)

xv. The People Bring the Tabernacle Items to Moses (39:32–43)

E. The Tabernacle Is Set Up (40:1–33)

i. The Lord Commands to Set up the Tabernacle (40:1–8)

ii. The Lord Commands to Make Holy the Tabernacle and Priests (40:9–15)

iii. The Tabernacle Is Set up according to the Lord’s Commands (40:16–33)

F. The Lord’s Glory Fills the Tabernacle (40:34–38)

i. The Lord’s Glory Fills the Tabernacle (40:34–35)

ii. The Lord Guides and Dwells among the Israelites by His Cloud (40:36–38)³

See author’s note.⁴

In Genesis, the Lord had promised the Israelites’ forefathers that they would become a nation and have a land. By the beginning of Exodus, the nation promise has been fulfilled (1:1–7), but the land promise has not. The Israelites are enslaved and need deliverance. These opening chapters focus on how that will happen. They may be grouped into six sections.

The first describes the need for deliverance and introduces the deliverer, Moses (Exod 1:1–2:22). The next more fully introduces the God of deliverance and the ways in which he will equip Moses to deliver the people (2:23–4:17). The third section transitions Moses back to Egypt (4:18–31), while the fourth recounts Moses’s first attempt (and failure) at deliverance but also underscores the Lord’s faithful character and promise to deliver (5:1–6:9). The fifth provides background information on Moses and Aaron while also previewing the way the Lord will deliver his people (6:10–7:7). The last section describes the miraculous judgments the Lord brings on Egypt that make his sovereign power known (7:8–11:10). Throughout, the narrator repeatedly draws our attention to the character of the Lord, the one who cares for his people, who will save them because of his covenant faithfulness, and who can save them because of his sovereign power over all earthly and spiritual powers.

Exodus begins with a strong reminder that the Lord has fulfilled his earlier promise to make the Israelites a great nation (1:1–7). But this also causes a problem: the Egyptians now fear the Israelites and so try to control their growth through oppression and genocide (1:8–22).

The Israelites multiply in Egypt (1:1–7). Exodus 1 returns to themes introduced in Genesis: the Israelites grew to a healthy family of seventy (1:1–5; see Gen 46:8–27) and from there became “fruitful” and “multiplied” (Exod 1:6–7; see Gen 47:27) so that they filled the “land” (or “earth”). Verses 6–7 use the language of Genesis 1:28 to make clear that God is doing in Israel what he has intended from the beginning for humanity. The Lord wants to use Israel as a signpost to humanity of his intent for his world.

Pharaoh’s attempts to control and destroy the Israelites (1:8–22). Now that the Lord has made Israel into a great nation, we might expect him to fulfill his promise to give Israel a land. Instead, we learn that a new king arises in Egypt. When this happened is not clear; the events in Exodus 1–2 take place over many generations (see 12:40) but are “telescoped” as though taking place over one or two. What matters is that he did not know Joseph (1:8) and therefore did not look favorably on his descendants. This Pharaoh in fact feared the Israelites would join Egyptian enemies in battle and ultimately escape (1:10). He and his people respond in three ways.

First, they try to control Israel through hard labor, making them build store cities and working in mortar and brick and in the field (1:8–14). The work’s oppressive nature is emphasized: “to afflict them with heavy burdens” (1:11); “ruthlessly made [them] work as slaves” (1:13, 14); “made their lives bitter with hard service” (1:14). This would normally lead to many early deaths so the population could be controlled, but, due to the Lord’s care and blessing, the opposite happened, and Israel grew all the more (1:12).

Next, the Pharaoh takes a more direct approach (1:15–21). He commands the midwives serving the Israelites to kill any newborn males, allowing only daughters to live. Because family lines were traced through the male, Israel would disappear as a nation, since the daughters would be absorbed into Egyptian families.⁵ But because the midwives “feared God” more than the Pharaoh, they refused to obey him (1:17), and God uses the obedience of these two women—who were undoubtedly “weak” in the world’s eyes—to defeat the plans of the world’s most powerful man (cf. 1Cor 1:26–29). He also rewards them, not only by preserving their names here (1:15), but also by giving them their own families (1:21).

Finally, with the Israelites still multiplying (1:20), the Pharaoh becomes desperate and commands all the Egyptians to throw any newborn Israelite boys into the Nile (1:22). Israel’s situation is desperate. They need a deliverer—a picture of a need all have and one that is provided for in Jesus (Matt 1:21).

This chapter describes Moses’s birth and miraculous rescue (2:1–10) and his later escape to Midian (2:11–22), the place where the Lord will commission him to become Israel’s deliverer (Exod 3–4).

The deliverer’s birth and rescue (2:1–10). A husband and wife from the tribe of Levi have a son (2:1–2). The child is healthy (the sense of “fine”), but due to Pharaoh’s threat (1:22), the mother must hide him (2:2). When that no longer works, she places him among the Nile’s reeds in a “basket,” the same word used for Noah’s “ark” and a hint that, like Noah, this child will be a deliverer.

As his sister watches (2:4), Pharaoh’s daughter comes to bathe in the Nile, finds the basket, and pities the child (2:5–6). His sister steps forward—note again how the Lord uses female characters (cf. 1:17)—and offers to find a Hebrew wet-nurse (2:7). The result? The child is taken back to his mother (2:8)! The deliverer is saved so that he might one day deliver (cf. Matt 2:13–15). At an appropriate age, the child is adopted by Pharaoh’s daughter, who named him Moses because she drew him out of the water (2:10). (“Moses” sounds like the Hebrew for “draw out.”)

The deliverer flees to Midian (2:11–22). Moses, now an adult, goes out among “his people” (2:11). Such language tells us Moses knows his Hebrew roots. Seeing his people’s “burdens” and one of them being “beaten” (or “struck down,” Heb. nākah), his heart is aroused and he “strikes down” (Heb. nākah) the Egyptian, killing him (2:12). The next day, when he rebukes one Israelite for “striking” (Heb. nākah) another (and thus acting like an Egyptian), the Israelite responds with a taunt that makes clear Moses’s killing of the Egyptian is public knowledge (2:13–14). Pharaoh himself soon learns of it, and Moses flees to Midian (2:15), “probably located in northwestern Arabia, just to the east of the Gulf of Elat (Aqaba).”⁶

Sitting by a well, Moses sees seven daughters of Midian’s priest try to water their flocks but be driven away by other shepherds (2:15b–17a). Moses “saves” and “delivers” them (2:17b, 19)—a sign of what he would one day do for Israel—and even waters their flocks. The girls’ father, Reuel (also known as Jethro, 3:1),⁷  invites Moses to live with his family and gives him his daughter Zipporah for a wife (2:21). Moses names their first son Gershom, the first part of which sounds like the Hebrew for “sojourner” (gēr) and captures Moses’s experience in exile.

A transition passage reminds us of two facts: the Israelites are suffering terribly (“groaned because of their slavery . . . cried out . . . cry for rescue”) (2:23), and the Lord is fully aware and about to act (“heard . . . remembered . . . saw . . . knew”) (2:24–25). How? By calling Moses to be the Israelites’ deliverer (3:1–4:17).

The Lord’s appearance in the burning bush (3:1–6). Moses is now shepherding for his father-in-law, Jethro (also known as Reuel, 2:18). He comes to Mt. Sinai—here called “the mountain of God”—where God often appears to his people (19:16–20; 24:1–18; etc.). Suddenly, an angel appears on the Lord’s behalf in a bush that is burning but not burned up (3:2). When Moses investigates, the Lord commands him—we are to understand the angel is speaking on the Lord’s behalf (compare Gen 22:11 with 22:12)—to take off his sandals out of respect since he is on holy ground (3:5; cf. 30:18–21). Its holiness comes from God’s presence there, and Moses immediately hides his face (3:6). If looking directly at an earthly king could be a sign of disrespect in those days (1Sam 24:8; 2Sam 14:33), how much more so with the King of heaven?

The Lord’s promise of deliverance and choice of Moses as deliverer (3:7–10). In alternating lines, the Lord repeats and assures that he is fully aware of his people’s sufferings (3:7, 9) and will certainly deliver them (3:8, 10). In particular, he will use Moses as the deliverer (3:10).

Moses resists, and the Lord responds (3:11–12). Moses does not think this is a good idea (3:11)! He expresses resistance five times in these chapters (3:11, 13; 4:1, 10, 13). As seen below, his resistance is more from fear than humility. Graciously, the Lord promises his presence (3:12a), the antidote to all fear. He also speaks of a sign (3:12b), which could refer to the Israelites “serving” (that is, “worshipping”) God at this mountain in the future (so ESV). Translating differently could indicate the sign is the burning bush (“and this [i.e., the bush] is the sign . . .”). Either way, God’s presence means there is no cause for fear.

Moses resists a second time, and the Lord responds (3:13–22). Moses delays by asking another question (3:13). If the Israelites are going to believe he is sent by their forefathers’ God, he needs to know his name. The Lord responds by saying, “I am who I am” (3:14) and then gives his proper name in 3:15: Yahweh (translated in English versions as “the Lord”). Scholars agree that the “I am” phrase (3:14), which uses the Hebrew verb hyh, is related to the name itself (3:15), which in Hebrew is yhwh. But what is the significance?

“I am who I am,” with its repetition of the verb, is a type of phrase that can be used for emphasis: “I really am!” In this case, the point is the Lord’s uniqueness: there is no god like him and no god but him. Note how the Lord repeats his name (“I am the Lord!”) in the coming chapters (8:22; 10:2; etc.) when showing “there is no one like me” (9:14). And note how Deuteronomy can look back on the same chapters and conclude, “there is no other besides him” (4:35).⁸ What a comfort these two truths were to be to the Israelites! (And what a comfort to believers today, who remember that Jesus identified himself as the great “I am” [John 8:58]!)

The Lord next commands Moses to gather Israel’s leaders and let them know of his care and his promise to deliver (3:16–18). He also states that when Moses and the leaders ask Pharaoh for freedom, he will initially resist but then, in the face of God’s overwhelming power, will let the people go (3:19–20). In addition to freedom, the Lord will grant them such favor that the Egyptians will freely give them jewelry and garments (3:21–22). The children the Egyptians had once tried to destroy will leave Egypt wearing Egyptian valuables!

Moses resists a third time, and the Lord responds (4:1–9). Moses resists again. His claim “they will not listen to my voice” (4:1) directly contradicts what the Lord had just promised (3:18). But the Lord continues to respond patiently and gives Moses three confirmatory signs (4:2–9). Since performing an action three times communicated emphasis in Israel (cf. 1Sam 20:41; 1Kgs 17:21), the point would be clear: God had indeed appeared to Moses.

Moses resists a fourth time, and the Lord responds (4:10–12). Moses resists a fourth time by appealing to his lack of eloquence (4:10). How can he be a spokesman? The Lord responds by reminding Moses of his sovereign strength (he can equip Moses to speak) and his divine presence (he will be with Moses and teach him what to say) (4:11–12). Moses can obey, not because he is strong or gifted, but because the strong Lord is with him (cf. 2Cor 12:7–10).

Moses resists a fifth time, and the Lord responds (4:13–17). Moses resists a final time (4:13), and the Lord finally becomes angry. While he abounds in patience, he does expect obedience in the end.

But even here he shows mercy, providing a spokesman on Moses’s behalf: Aaron, Moses’s older brother (4:14; see 7:7). The Lord will speak to Moses, Moses will share the message with Aaron, and Aaron will speak to the people (4:15–16). But most important of all will be the Lord’s ongoing presence with Moses and Aaron (4:15b). His presence and strength enable their success.

The Lord finishes by telling Moses to take the staff (4:17), preparing us for the central role it will soon play (7:9–12, 14–21; 8:5–6; et. al.).

Moses begins the journey back (4:18–23). After securing permission from his father-in-law, Moses departs for Egypt with his wife and two sons (4:18–20a) and the “staff of God” (4:20b; see at 4:17).

As in 3:16–22, the Lord warns Moses what is coming (4:18–21). Even when he performs the signs, Pharaoh will not listen because the Lord will harden his heart. In Exodus, a “hard-hearted” person is someone whose heart is rebelliously disobedient, as Pharaoh’s responses throughout these chapters make clear. When the Lord hardens Pharaoh’s heart, he is not making a good heart bad (the wickedness of Pharaoh’s heart is already clear); he is confirming Pharaoh in his rebellion. God sometimes judges us by “giving us over” to our sin (Rom 1:28–32).

The Lord then tells Moses the warning to give Pharaoh (4:22–23). In it, he describes the Israelites as his “firstborn son,” which meant both that the Lord loved the Israelites and that they were to fulfill the special role of firstborn sons in ancient Israel: maintaining “the well-being of the household and its honor” through obedient service.⁹ By obediently serving the Lord who loved them, Israel would honor their Father before the watching world. (For Jesus as the ultimate firstborn son, see Heb 1:1–12. For discussion of the death of the firstborn Egyptians, see at 11:4–9.)

Moses is delivered from the Lord’s judgment (4:24–26). Some passages assume knowledge of ancient Israel’s cultural realities. Without this knowledge, the full meaning of such passages remains mysterious. This is one such passage.

At the least, it seems the Lord’s anger is due to Moses’s failure to circumcise his son (note how Zipporah’s act of circumcising their son turns away God’s wrath). The story thus makes clear the importance of raising children in the covenant (see Gen 17:10–14). And despite various guesses, it remains mysterious why she touched the foreskin to Moses’s feet (which might be a euphemism for “genitals”) and said, “you are a bridegroom of blood.”

The Lord now sends Aaron to Mt. Sinai where he reunites with Moses (4:27). Moses tells him all the Lord has spoken to him and shows him the signs (4:28).

This prepares them to return to Egypt, where they gather the Israelites’ leaders. Aaron passes on the Lord’s words, shows them the signs, and the people respond with belief and grateful worship that the Lord has remembered them and would “visit” them with special care (4:29–31; for Jesus as the ultimate “visitation” from the Lord, see Luke 1:68–75).

Moses and Aaron give Pharaoh the Lord’s command to let the Israelites go so they might worship the Lord (5:1). Pharaoh’s response, “Who is the Lord, that I should obey his voice?” (5:2), is full of disdain. He refuses to “know/acknowledge”—the Hebrew used in 5:2b can be translated either way—the Lord’s kingship and that Israel is his people. Pharaoh then increases his wickedness by requiring the Israelites to make the same number of bricks even though they would no longer be provided with the straw needed to make them (5:6–8a; straw strengthens mud bricks). This was to teach them not to be lazy and, more importantly, to turn them against Moses and Aaron (5:8b–9; see 5:21).

When the Israelites fail in this impossible task—they could not quickly gather straw they had to travel to find, especially when it was only little bits of stubble—the Israelite foremen are beaten (5:10–14). They appeal to Pharaoh for relief, naming the injustice of the situation humbly (“your servants”; 5:15–16), but Pharaoh’s wicked heart is unmoved, and he underscores his accusations (“idle . . . idle”) and his unjust command (5:17–18).

Pharaoh’s plan works, and the people turn on Moses and Aaron, even asking God to judge them for causing the Israelites such trouble (5:19–21). It looks like Moses’s mission is a complete failure.

Moses now prays, asking why the Lord has brought such “trouble” (NIV) on his people by sending him to them (5:22). His observation that God has not in any way delivered them is really a plea for him to do so (5:23).

The Lord answers his plea: “Because of my mighty hand [Pharaoh] will let them go” (6:1 NIV). He then reminds Moses he is the God of Israel’s forefathers¹⁰ and made a covenant promise to give them Canaan (6:2–4). He is keenly aware of their suffering and has remembered this promise and will act on it (6:5).

On this basis, Moses is to give them several promises, all framed by the statement “I am the Lord” (6:6, 8; compare Pharaoh’s sarcastic question in 5:2). These promises make clear the Lord is a God who delivers and redeems (6:6), enters into relationship with his people (6:7), and keeps his covenant promises (6:8). He can therefore be trusted no matter how great the trial (cf. 2Cor 12:7–10; 1Pet 2:21–23.)

But when Moses shares this good news with the people, they cannot believe him (6:9). Without faith, trials overwhelm and embitter our hearts and leave us unable to hear the possibilities of God’s promises.

The Lord again tells Moses to demand that Pharaoh let the people go (cf. 4:22–23). As in chapters 3–4, Moses again resists, describing his lips as “uncircumcised,” that is, unable to do their job (cf. Lev 26:41). He lacks persuasive speech; he cannot possibly convince Pharaoh if he cannot convince his own people.

This section is an interlude that gives background on Moses and Aaron. It forms a chiasm: its opening and closing verses mirror one another, focusing on Moses’s and Aaron’s roles as deliverers (6:13, 26–27), and its central verses give their genealogy (6:14–25).

Not all modern societies value genealogies, but in Israel’s “tribal society, society was structured along relational lines that informed marriage decisions and business dealings” and “gave people a general sense of belonging . . . Knowing someone’s genealogical heritage therefore helped you to know how to relate to them and how they should relate to you.”¹¹

The genealogy focuses on the line of Levi, the third son of Jacob born to Leah (Reuben and Simeon being the first two, 6:14–15; see Gen 29:31–34). The focus is here because Moses and Aaron, Israel’s leaders, come from Levi’s tribe and because this tribe plays an important part in tabernacle matters (see Num 3–4). Many of the characters listed here will also feature in coming narratives, for example, Nadab and Abihu in Leviticus 10:1–2, or Korah in Numbers 16:1–32.

With the genealogy complete, 6:28–30 resumes the story by summarizing 6:10–12. The Lord then reassures Moses that he will give him the words to say and that Aaron will in turn speak the words to Pharaoh (7:1–2). This addresses the fear Moses expresses in 6:30. The Lord also lets Moses know what is to come: he will harden Pharaoh’s heart (7:3), that is, confirm him in his rebellion, giving him over to his sin (see at 4:18–23). Pharaoh will therefore continue to rebel, ignoring the Lord’s commands and warnings, but the Lord will ultimately defeat him by leading the Israelites out with great power. All Egypt will then know that he, Yahweh, is sovereign King (7:4–5). Such judgment and deliverance foreshadow the ultimate judgment and deliverance he will accomplish when Jesus returns (Rev 21:1–8).

The passage finishes by relating the obedience Moses and Aaron would show in the coming chapters (7:6). It also notes their ages as their important mission begins (7:7), a common feature at important life events of other biblical characters (Gen 7:6; 12:4; 17:24; etc.).

This section begins with a sign that results in no harm (7:8–13) and then describes ten more that harmfully strike Egypt or its inhabitants (7:14–11:9). Of those ten, the first nine happen here; the tenth is simply described and happens later. While often referred to as the ten “plagues,” the more common biblical terms are “signs” (7:3; 8:23; 10:1–2) and “wonders” (7:3; 11:9–10), that is, miraculous signs of the Lord’s power over Pharaoh and Egypt’s gods through his “striking” the land (7:25; 12:12). (I will therefore use the language of “signs” and “strikes” below instead of “plagues.”) Because of Pharaoh’s hard heart, he refuses to believe the signs and does not let the people go. This prepares us for the terrifying final sign that comes in the next section—and leads to Israel’s release.

At Moses’s command, Aaron performs the first sign, and his staff turns into a serpent. This was clearly miraculous (note how Moses ran from the serpent the first time this happened in 4:3). Pharaoh’s magicians then do the same, presenting themselves as those knowing “secret arts” by which they could access supernatural power. Whether they actually did so or simply used sleight of hand is debated. Either way, when Aaron’s serpent swallows theirs, it becomes clear: his God has sovereign power over whatever gods the magicians represent. But Pharaoh’s hardened heart does not believe it. Ten more signs—traditionally known as the “ten plagues”—will therefore follow but with an important difference: each one now “strikes” the people or the land with harm.

Pharaoh’s hardened heart frames this passage and explains his rebellion (7:14, 22–23). Moses is to meet him at the Nile, which is the object of the next sign, and take the sign-working staff with him. After warning Pharaoh about his disobedience, he will announce the sign: the Nile will turn to blood, its fish die, and the people weary themselves trying to find other water sources (7:18; compare 7:24). The result? Pharaoh, who rebelliously said, “I do not know the Lord” (5:2), will come to “know” how powerful the Lord is (7:17)!

The Lord then commands Moses how Aaron is to perform the sign (7:19), emphasizing it will impact all surface waters and will focus on the Egyptians (“their rivers, their canals,” etc.). Commentators debate whether the waters actually turned to blood or whether this language is used because a divinely inspired inundation of sediment or algae gave the waters the appearance of blood (compare the use of “blood” in Joel 2:31). Either way, with dying fish and undrinkable foul water, the consequences were severe (7:21).

When Pharaoh’s magicians somehow imitate the sign (compare at 7:8–13), Pharaoh’s hardened heart uses it as an excuse not to listen or even try to learn (7:22–23), and his people suffer the sign’s hardship for a week (7:24–25). Often, our lack of repentance harms others.

A warning is given: if Pharaoh does not release the Israelites, frogs will infest every corner of the Egyptians’ homes, from Pharaoh’s own bed to the equipment the people use to prepare their food (8:1–4). The text assumes Pharaoh refuses, and Moses commands Aaron to stretch out the sign-working staff of judgment (8:5).

The sign happens and swarming frogs cover the land like a pulsating blanket (8:6). The magicians are again able to repeat the sign (8:7; compare 7:11, 22), which in this case only makes the infestation worse! Moreover, they are powerless to make the frogs leave. Pharaoh is forced to admit only Yahweh can do so and asks Moses to pray for deliverance, promising he will release the people (8:8). Moses asks when Pharaoh wants the frogs gone, and Pharaoh gives an impossible timeframe to resolve a national infestation: the very next day (8:10a)! Moses agrees, making clear the Lord would do this so Pharaoh would “know/acknowledge” Yahweh as sovereign God (8:10b; compare at 5:2).

The Lord answers Moses’s earnest cry, and all the frogs die, their carcasses soon filling the land with the stench of death, an ongoing reminder of sin’s consequences (8:13–14; cf. Rom 6:23). But with the discipline removed, Pharaoh again hardens his heart, refusing to keep his promise (8:15). His behavior is a warning: repentance that evaporates once discipline ends is not genuine.

At the Lord’s command, Aaron strikes the ground with the sign-working staff, and the dust becomes “gnats” that afflict man and beast (8:16–17a; the translation “gnats” is uncertain; others suggest lice or mosquitoes). “All” the Egyptians are affected (8:17b).

This time, the magicians cannot repeat the sign, nor can they deliver from it (8:18). They warn Pharaoh that a divine power is at work (one so strong they are powerless before it) (8:19a). But Pharaoh is unmoved; hard hearts will refuse to listen even to trusted advisors (8:19b).

Moses warns Pharaoh of the next sign: if he refuses to send the Lord’s people out of his land, the Lord will send flies into it! This will make clear the Lord is the sovereign King over all the earth. Moreover, he will spare Goshen, the place in Egypt the Israelites live, to make clear they are his people (8:20–23). (The same sparing of the Israelites happens elsewhere [9:4, 26; 10:23; 11:7], perhaps suggesting it also took place even where it is not noted.)

Pharaoh ignores the warning, and the sign comes (8:24). This time the magicians do not even try to repeat it. Pharaoh then agrees to let the people go but not to leave the land as requested (8:25). Moses counters that this could be fatal to the Israelites (and thus Pharaoh’s workforce) since the Egyptians for some reason¹² considered Israelite sacrifices to be such an abomination they might kill the Israelites for making them (8:26–27). Pharaoh then agrees to the Israelites leaving the land (though even here forbidding them from going far; 8:28), and Moses warns Pharaoh not to break his promise as before (8:29; compare 8:8, 15).

When Moses prays, the Lord answers and removes every last fly from the land (8:30–31). Sadly, Pharaoh again hardens his heart and breaks his promise (8:32). Trustworthy words do not come from hardened hearts.

In this sign, the Lord devastates Egyptian livestock by a plague.¹³ Since people’s livelihood depended on their animals, this was devastating to the Egyptians. The Israelites’ animals, however, were unaffected, a fact that Pharaoh himself confirms (9:7a). Clearly, Israel’s God was at work, and he was powerful indeed.

But even after confirming the sign, Pharaoh refuses to obey (9:7b). Hardened hearts do not seek truth, only self-confirmation.

Moses now takes over from Aaron as the one performing the signs, perhaps suggesting he has overcome his earlier qualms (see at 3:11–12). Standing before Pharaoh, he throws soot into the air, which spreads throughout the land, causing painful boils to break out on the Egyptians and their animals. The magicians, who had previously imitated the signs, are completely overwhelmed by this one (9:11). Moses’s God, not theirs, holds true power.

As he had foretold (4:21), the Lord now hardens Pharaoh’s heart (9:12). In doing so, he is not taking a good heart and making it bad but confirming a wicked heart in its rebellion, giving Pharaoh over to his sin (see at 4:18–23). It is a terrifying judgment and one that happens to this day (Rom 1:28–32), strongly warning us to turn from sin with all our might.

This strike will devastate the land with hail, killing anything left out in the open (9:13–21).¹⁴ The warning is especially long. It emphasizes that the Lord has allowed Pharaoh and the Egyptians continued life so that, by means of his ongoing judgments, he might make clear to them and all the earth his sovereign power (9:14–16; cf. Rom 9:17). It also focuses on two types of hearts among Pharaoh’s servants: those with good hearts who heed the Lord’s warnings (9:20), and those with hard hearts who do not (9:21; the Hebrew for “did not pay attention to” is “did not set his heart to”).

The strike is described in terrifying detail (9:22–25). Relentless hail, deafening thunder, and blinding lightning pound the land like a heavenly artillery barrage and destroy everything in the field, from man to beast to plant life. Only one place in Egypt was spared: Goshen, where the Israelites lived (9:26). Their God brought this strike about and made sure to protect them from it.

To this point, Pharaoh has never admitted sin. Now he does, pleading for deliverance and promising to let the people go (9:27–28). Moses agrees to pray for him and emphasizes that the Lord will answer so that Pharaoh might “know/acknowledge” Yahweh as the sovereign God (9:29; see at 5:2). But he also notes that Pharaoh and his servants do not yet “fear the Lord God” (9:30; the Hebrew phrase used here means they are not afraid of the Lord’s judgment). It is not clear whether this was an accusation (“I’m not fooled by your words!”) or an invitation for Pharaoh to declare his promise was sincere (cf. Josh 24:14–21). Either way, it prepares us for what is to come.

But first, a brief notice lets the reader know which crops were destroyed (9:31–32). This makes clear the time of year (February or early March).

The story then resumes. Moses prays, the Lord answers, and the hailstorm ceases (9:33). Once again, when relief comes, Pharaoh hardens his heart—as do his servants with him—and goes back on his word (9:34–35; compare 8:8 and 8:15, 8:28 and 8:32). His confession of sin (9:27) is shown to be empty and insincere, which reminds us that true repentance continues even after discipline for sin comes to an end.

Pharaoh and his servants had just hardened their own hearts (9:34). Now, the Lord states he has also done so, confirming them in their rebellion (10:1a; see further at 4:18–23).

In response to the disobedience that will follow, the Lord will continue to perform his signs in their midst, which the Israelites are to repeat to future generations as a testimony of who the Lord is (10:1b–2; cf. Ps 78:1–8). In this case, the sign will be a locust plague that utterly devastates the land, destroying anything left by the hail (or that had begun to regrow since then), and “filling” the Egyptians’ homes like water fills a cup (10:3–6).

Pharaoh’s servants believe it and try to get Pharaoh to act (10:7), but their suggestion to let the “men” go instead of all the “people” (10:3) misses the mark. Even though they see the land is ruined, they will not fully obey God.

Pharaoh follows their advice. He initially tells Moses to go but also asks who will leave (10:8). When Moses insists that the entire nation must go, Pharaoh adamantly refuses, accusing them of having some evil purpose and making clear only the men can go (which would guarantee they would return since they would not abandon their wives and children) (10:9–11). That Moses and Aaron are “driven out” from Pharaoh’s presence underscores how angry he was.

At the Lord’s direction, Moses lifts the staff of judgment, and the Lord brings the locusts by means of a strong east wind (10:11–13). Never had so many locusts invaded the land, “darkening” it both literally (like a swarming blanket) and metaphorically (darkness is often associated with judgment; see 10:21–23; 1Sam 2:9; Isa 5:30; etc.) (10:14–15).

Wasting no time, Pharaoh summons Moses. For only the second time, he confesses his sin, this time admitting he has wronged the Lord as well as Moses and Aaron (10:16; compare 9:27). He asks for forgiveness and then once more asks for deliverance (the implication being he will release the people once relief comes) (10:17). When Moses prays, the Lord removes the locusts by means of a western wind so that “not a single locust remained” (10:19, my translation), an event that would be mirrored in the Lord’s judgment on Egyptian soldiers very soon (14:28)!

But Pharaoh never intended to keep his word, and the Lord confirms him in his rebellion (10:20). The signs of judgment will therefore continue, to the harm of Pharaoh and his people.

In this sign, the land is covered in darkness so deep, its inhabitants were reduced to groping around and could not go about their regular activities for three days (10:21–23a). As just noted, darkness implies judgment (see at 10:14–15). And as before, the judgment does not befall the Lord’s people (10:23b; compare 8:22; 9:4, 26). Moreover, since the Egyptians worshipped the sun “as a manifestation of various deities, such as Atum, Re, Amun, and Amun-Re,”¹⁵ the judgment was not only on the Egyptians but also on their gods, who could not even show their face before the Lord’s power!

In response, Pharaoh says the Israelites can leave but not their animals (which would again guarantee the Israelites’ return since animals were central to survival; compare at 10:9–11) (10:24). When Moses insists the animals must come, the Lord confirms Pharaoh in his hardened rebellion (10:25–27). Pharaoh refuses to let Israel go and threatens Moses with death if he ever approaches him again (10:28). Moses’s response indicates Pharaoh has missed his last chance: “I will not continue to see your face” (my translation), that is, by initiating these meetings as he has been (10:29).¹⁶ God’s patience has come to an end, and when that happens, the judgment that follows is severe indeed (see Rom 2:4–11).

Verses 1–3 jump ahead to tell us the final sign’s outcome: Israel’s release from Egypt with great favor (compare 3:21–22). The story then returns to the present time, and Moses describes the terrifying last strike and how all Egypt will be affected (11:4–6) but how the Lord’s people will experience his protection and favor (11:7–8a).¹⁷

The nature of this strike was anticipated in 4:23, when the Lord warned, “If you refuse to let [Israel, my firstborn] go, behold, I will kill your firstborn son” (4:23). The Lord had mercifully delayed doing so, warning the Egyptians repeatedly, but they refused to listen, and so the horrific judgment finally comes. There are many difficulties here. Many rightly ask, “Is this really just?” In my own wrestling with this passage, the following thoughts have been helpful. Since the word “firstborn” refers to birth order (not age), many who died would have been adults that participated in Egypt’s evil and were thus guilty. That the Lord only killed the firstborn and not all the sons (compare Egypt’s brutal tactics, 1:22) is a sign of his mercy. Still, many young children would also have died who did not participate in Egypt’s evil. It may be helpful at this point to distinguish between temporal judgment and someone’s eternal destiny. The focus here is temporal judgment. As for the eternal destiny of the Egyptian young, the Bible does not address what happens to infants outside of covenant households that die, but “I find myself at this point remembering the question of Abraham: ‘Shall not the Judge of all the earth do what is just?’ (Gen 18:25). And I rest in that.”¹⁸

The passage ends with Moses leaving angrily, perhaps in response to Pharaoh’s hard-hearted ways (11:8b), and with a summary explaining that throughout all of Pharaoh’s rebellion, the Lord has been in sovereign control the entire time for his own purposes and glory (11:9–10; cf. 2Pet 3:9).

This section’s first half describes what finally led to the Israelites’ release from Egypt (12:29–42) and gives instructions for three events to commemorate it: Passover, the Feast of Unleavened Bread, and the consecration of the firstborn (12:1–28; 12:43–13:16). The section’s second half describes the Israelites’ initial departure route (13:17–22), the Lord’s final defeat of Pharaoh and his forces (14:1–31), and the people’s response of praise and worship (15:1–21). Because of the Lord’s salvation, this generation of Israelites will never be afflicted by Egypt again.

The Lord begins by stating that the month of the Israelites’ deliverance, which was sometime in March or April, will become the first month of the year. Their calendar now starts with a reminder of redemption (12:1–2).

The first event celebrated that month will be Passover (12:3–13). On the tenth of the month, each household is to collect a lamb or, if the household is small, to join a neighbor in collecting one (12:3–4). The lamb was to be blameless, as appropriate for sacrifices (see Mal 1:8), and to be a male that was one year old, perhaps allowing it to gain good weight and yet still be tender. It could be from the sheep or goats (12:5).

The lamb was to be slaughtered and eaten on the fourteenth of the month and its blood put on the home’s doorposts and lintels (12:6–7). Its meat was to be eaten roasted that night (with any leftovers burned, perhaps to avoid ritually defiling it), and it was to be accompanied by unleavened bread and bitter herbs, the latter a reminder of the bitter slavery the Lord was rescuing the Israelites from (12:8–10). They were to dress for a journey before eating it and then eat it in haste; deliverance was about to come (12:11)!

The Lord then restates the coming judgment on the Egyptian firstborn, which will also be a judgment on Egypt’s gods, showing that they are absolutely powerless before the Lord. He is the true God; they are not (12:12). As for the Israelite firstborn, they will be protected by the blood of the Passover lamb, which will stand in their place and signal to the Lord to “pass over”—hence the name of the sacrifice—that home (12:13). (In Jesus, the Lord has now provided the ultimate Passover lamb; see 1Cor 5:7.)

Instructions for the Feast of Unleavened Bread follow since it came directly after the Passover (12:14–20). During the festival’s seven days, the Israelites could use no leaven when making bread in order to remind themselves of the Lord’s deliverance (12:14–17), which happened so suddenly they only had unleavened dough to bake after their departure (12:34, 39). The festival’s very food was thus a pointer to the fact that the Lord was their Savior (cf. 1Cor 11:23–26). For this reason, those refusing to celebrate the festival were to be removed (“cut off”) from the people, perhaps through exile, since a refusal to celebrate was a refusal to acknowledge what the festival represented (12:15, 19). (It would be like a Christian treating the Lord’s Supper as worthless.)

Moses now passes on the Passover instructions to the elders, who will in turn tell the Israelites. The text initially focuses on the protective power of the blood, which will rescue the firstborn from death (12:21–23). (The phrase “the destroyer” in v. 23 could refer to an angelic destroyer but could also be translated “destruction”; either way, the lamb’s lifeblood protected the firstborn from death.)

The text then switches focus to discuss the importance of celebrating the Passover ritual (12:24–27a). In Israel, a ritual was to be a schoolhouse where children learned of God’s character and acts so they would want to love him with their whole heart. (It makes one ask, How might we use rituals to do the same today?)

The Israelites responded to these words by worshipping the Lord (12:27b; compare 4:31) and by getting ready for their coming deliverance (12:28).

1. The Eleventh Sign, Tenth Strike Happens, and the Israelites Leave Egypt (12:29–42)

That night, the final strike happens, and the Egyptian nation is devastated, “for there was not a house where someone was not dead” (12:30). (See at 11:1–10 for further comment on the death of the firstborn). Pharaoh finally yields, telling Moses and Aaron to leave with the whole nation and even asking for a blessing (12:31–32). He now knows that Yahweh is the only God who has power to bless.

The Egyptian people also urged the Israelites to leave immediately; they wanted no more death at the hand of Israel’s God (12:33). Their demand was so urgent the Israelites departed without being able to prepare proper provisions, taking their dough before it was leavened (and later baking it into unleavened bread) (12:34, 39). However, they had already obeyed Moses’s command to ask the Egyptians for jewelry and clothing (see 3:22; 11:1). They were lavishly supplied because of the favor the Lord gave them in the Egyptians’ eyes, so much so they effectively plundered the Egyptians (12:35–36), which “was appropriate compensation for years of bitterly hard service.”¹⁹

The beginning of their journey is described and the number of men given (12:37). Even if the number has been deliberately inflated, as happened elsewhere in the ancient Near East with large numbers,²⁰ the point is clear: the Lord has kept his promise to make Abraham’s descendants into a great nation (see Gen 12:2). We also learn of a “mixed multitude” leaving with Israel (Exod 12:38), meaning other nationalities, a hint that the Lord’s promise to make Israel a blessing to the nations is also taking place (see Gen 12:3).

The notice that the Israelites left Egypt after 430 years shows that the Lord’s prophetic words to Abraham have been fulfilled (Exod 12:40–41; see Gen 15:13–14). And just as the Lord had kept special watch that night to deliver Israel, so the Israelites were to keep special watch on the yearly anniversary of that night to honor him (Exod 12:42).

Having mentioned the Passover night (12:42), further instructions regarding the Passover naturally follow (12:43–50). These focus on who may celebrate it, namely, not only Israelites and circumcised household servants, but also anyone from the nations who received circumcision, the covenant sign (12:43–45, 47–49).²¹ To do so was equivalent to baptism today: a declaration of faith in the God of the covenant. The presence of such a law demonstrates the Lord’s desire for the nations to be among his covenant people.

In the midst of these instructions are three commands related to the Passover lamb (12:46). The opening two are in keeping with those of 12:3–10. The reason for the last command (not breaking the bones) is debated. Whatever its rationale, the apostle John could not help but think of it when he noted that none of Jesus’s bones were broken during the crucifixion (John 19:33–36). His point is clear: Jesus is the ultimate Passover lamb whose blood delivers us from eternal death.

Having just focused on commemorating the exodus by means of the Passover (12:43–50), the text now focuses on commemorating it by means of consecrating the firstborn and celebrating the Feast of Unleavened Bread. The passage is beautifully arranged: discussion of the feast (13:3–10) is framed by discussion of consecrating the firstborn (13:1–2, 11–16).

All firstborn sons and male animals were to be “consecrated” to the Lord (13:1–2), that is, set apart as belonging to him (13:12a). Doing so would provide parents a chance to teach their children, “I do this to honor the Lord, the one who destroyed the Egyptian firstborn but spared our own and powerfully rescued us from cruel bondage” (see 13:15–16). Firstborn sacrificial animals were consecrated by means of sacrifice (13:15). Non-sacrificial animals would be “redeemed” with a lamb; that is, the lamb functioned as a payment that transferred ownership back to the Israelites (13:13a). If it was not redeemed, it was killed so that the Israelites were not using the Lord’s property as their own (13:13a). Firstborn sons were also redeemed (13:13b); we learn later the payment was five shekels (Num 18:16).

The instructions regarding the Feast of Unleavened Bread repeat earlier commands (compare 13:3–7 with 12:14–20) but also emphasize the importance of using this feast for teaching coming generations of the Lord’s powerful, redeeming nature (12:8–10). We are to share with our children the ways in which God has worked in our own lives so they might come to know how wonderful he is.

We now resume the story of Israel’s departure that began in 12:29–42. Knowing how fearful the people were, the Lord did not lead them by a way that would lead to early battles, but by a different route that would avoid them (13:17–18). His manner of leading them was unmistakable: a pillar of cloud that was visible during the day and that lit up to be visible at night (13:20–22). The Lord was clearly with them.

The passage also notes that Moses fulfilled the promise that Joseph made the Israelites’ forefathers swear as he anticipated God’s covenant promises being fulfilled (13:19; see Gen 50:25; Josh 24:32). Highlighting this shows that the Lord has been faithful to those promises.

The Lord now sets a trap for Pharaoh. He tells Israel to turn back and camp by the sea, which will give Pharaoh the sense that Israel is bewildered and lost (14:1–3). He also states he will again harden Pharaoh’s already hardened heart (see at 4:18–23) so that he will pursue Israel. When this happens, the Lord will perform some miracle—we are not yet told what it is—that will lead those who see it, Egyptians included, to give glory to the Lord as the true God (14:4).

When Pharaoh and his servants realize the Israelites have left, they have a change of heart, and Pharaoh decides to pursue them with a massive military force (14:5–7). As the Lord said, he hardens Pharaoh’s heart, who continues in his reckless path of trying to destroy the Israelites, even as they leave Egypt in triumphant defiance (14:8–9).

When Pharaoh’s forces come within eyesight, the Israelites realize they are the ones trapped, with Pharaoh’s forces before them and the sea behind them. They cry out in great fear to the Lord (14:10), but it is not a cry of faith, as their words of accusation to Moses immediately make clear (14:11–12). Moses responds with great faith, exhorting the Israelites not to fear: the Lord will win the battle for them—they will not have to raise a finger!—and they will never see these Egyptians again (14:13–14). The Lord’s deliverance will be full and complete.

The Lord tells Moses what will happen (14:15–18). Since Moses had just expressed faith, the Lord’s rebuke in v. 15 must be directed through Moses towards the Israelites. The Lord commands them to move forward, which they will be able to do because he will somehow split the sea in front of them (14:16). He will also perform some miracle of judgment on Pharaoh and all his hosts so that they fully acknowledge the Lord is worthy of their glory and praise (14:17–18). Just how these things will happen remains to be seen.

We next learn that an angel had been going before Israel in the pillar of cloud (for angels as the Lord’s representatives, see at 3:1–6). The angel and the cloud move between Israel and Egypt (14:19–20). This gives Moses time to raise the staff of God over the sea so the Lord can respond by sending an east wind to divide the sea and make a path of dry land between two walls of water (14:21–22). Once the Israelites march through, the angel and cloud move out of the way, and the Egyptians rush in (14:23). It is a fatal mistake. The Lord in some way afflicts all the chariots, making them difficult to drive (14:24–25a). As he predicted, the Egyptians recognize that he is at work and to be feared (14:25b; see 14:17–18). But it is too late. When Moses stretches out his hand again, the waters return to their place, and all the Egyptians who chased after the Israelites drown, never to be seen alive again (14:26–28; see 14:13–14, 30). The Israelites have been saved, not through their own work, but solely through the Lord their savior (cf. Eph 2:1–10).

The chapter ends by emphasizing the Lord’s great power by which he saved his people (14:29–31a). His people respond with appropriate reverence and awe (“feared the Lord”), put their trust in the Lord and his servant Moses (14:31b), and break out in jubilant song (15:1–21). The Lord’s salvation is so wonderful his people cannot help but sing (cf. Rev 5:9–10).

I have paraphrased this song elsewhere as follows:²²

I will sing to the Lord, who has abundantly shown his majesty and strength by defeating Egypt’s forces, picking up each horse and rider as easily as an archer does an arrow and then shooting them into the heart of the sea (15:1b). The Lord has exercised his saving strength on my behalf, and because of him I can sing with joy, rejoicing in the salvation he has accomplished for me (15:2a). I give allegiance to him as my God and will describe the beauty of who he is; indeed, my ancestors gave their allegiance to him, and I will lift his name on high as the one worthy of praise (15:2b). By defeating the Egyptians in war, he has made known that he, Yahweh, is the sovereign God of power in the earth (15:3). He hurled Pharaoh’s chariots and army into the sea where they sank, they and the very best of Egypt’s officers (15:4). The watery depths covered them like a blanket, and they sank like a stone into the heart of the sea (15:5).

O Lord, your strong right hand towers in majestic strength and shatters the enemy in defeat (15:6). In the greatness of your majesty and strength you tear down those who rise up against you; you release your burning wrath on them, and it consumes them like stubble in the fire (15:7). Your nostrils flared with anger, and at their blast the waters were heaped up like grain, forming into tall piles, becoming like two solid walls (15:8). After we left Egypt and were escaping through the channel you made in the sea, the enemy said, “I will pursue and overtake them! I will plunder their goods! I will feast myself full on them! I will empty my sword out of its sheath and will drive them away with no land to dwell in!” (15:9). But you, O Lord, blew the waters back into place and covered them so that they sank like lead in the mighty waters (15:10). Who is like you among the gods, O Lord? No one! What god is there whose utter uniqueness is so majestic, who is so worthy of reverential awe when being praised, who is able to do such miraculous wonders? None! (15:11). You stretched out your right hand like a warrior in battle and caused the earth to swallow up the enemy in the sea (15:12).

As for your people, Israel, you not only rescued them from difficulty, but you are leading them in your gracious steadfast love, protecting them like a strong shepherd as you bring them like sheep to your holy pasture land in Canaan (15:13). The other nations who hear of all you have done will quake with dread (15:14a), including four of Israel’s archenemies: Philistia’s inhabitants will writhe in anguish like a woman in childbirth (15:14b), Edom’s chiefs will be paralyzed with terror (15:15a), Moab’s leaders will tremble with fear (15:15b), and Canaan’s inhabitants will melt away in dread (15:15c). Yes, terror and dread will fall on them! When they see how great and powerful your miraculous acts of redemption prove you to be, they will be petrified, as still as stone, letting your people, whom you have redeemed and acquired as your servant, pass by unharmed (15:16). You will then bring your people and plant them like a vine so they can take root and flourish in your land, which is like a majestic mountain, one that you are preparing, O Lord, to be the very place in which you dwell, a holy place, O Lord, which your own hands will establish (15:17).

The Lord, he is the one who will reign as eternal King! (15:18).

The song is followed by a summary of the salvation it celebrates (15:19) and by a notice that Miriam the prophetess, sister to Aaron (and Moses, Num 26:59), led the women in a small chorus celebrating the same theme (15:20–21; cf. Judg 11:34; 1Sam 18:6). All God’s people are joined together in praise of their King!

Looking forward, the judgment described here anticipates the final judgment to come on all those who reject Jesus, whom the Lord has sent as final King and Savior, while the salvation described here anticipates the salvation from sin and its consequences that God grants to all who gladly bow the knee to King Jesus, the one who came to save. May we be among the second group!

Generally speaking, a biblical test is a situation in which obedience and faith are difficult. It allows those being tested to grow in humility and show true faith (Deut 8:2) and also to experience the Lord’s provision for their needs (see Deut 8:16). In this section, the Israelites fail two tests and then sinfully test the Lord, who nonetheless faithfully provides for their needs.

Leaving the Red Sea, the Israelites travel three days into the wilderness of Shur, east of Egypt, without finding water (15:22). When they do find water, it is too bitter to drink (the Hebrew for “bitter”—mar—leads to the placename “Marah”) (15:23).

The Israelites respond by “grumbling,” that is, complaining bitterly from a posture of unbelief and anger instead of trusting faith (15:24; see also 16:2; 17:3; Num 14:2; etc.). In response, Moses cries out to the Lord, and the Lord shows him a log to throw into the waters to make them drinkable, presumably through a miracle (15:25a).

The Lord then introduces the theme of testing (15:25b). Most broadly, the test is whether the Israelites will be faithful to him (15:26a). If so, in place of the diseases the Egyptians received in judgment, the Israelites would experience the Lord’s healing care (15:26b). This was not because their obedience merited God’s love. “Obedience is not about earning God’s love but about remaining in his love and, in this way, enjoying the life-giving results that happen when staying close to the loving King” (cf. John 15:10). ²³ He loves to reward his children with good things.

The story closes by noting the Israelites arrive at Elim, where there are abundant springs and palm trees (15:27). The Lord has continued to shower his people with care.

About one month after leaving Egypt (compare 16:1 with 12:2–6), the Israelites come to the wilderness of Sin (this is a Hebrew name; it is not connected to the English word “sin”) (16:1). They again grumble, this time for lack of food (16:2–3; compare at 15:24). The Lord promises abundant provision and also that he will test them (16:4–5; the test comes in 16:16–30).

Moses and Aaron let the people know the Lord will miraculously provide for their needs so they will know—that is, acknowledge (see at 5:2)—the Lord as their miraculous deliverer who is worthy of glory (16:6–7). Moses then gives more detail on what the Lord will provide but also emphasizes that the Israelites are really complaining against the Lord, not Moses and Aaron (16:8).

To this point, verses 1–8 have summarized certain events. Verses 9–12 now go back to fill in some details. Aaron had gathered the grumbling Israelites to receive the Lord’s message (16:9). The Lord had then lit up the cloud that was leading them with his glory, that is, with lightning and fire that made clear his glorious nature (16:10; compare 19:16–18; 20:18; 24:17). It was then he delivered his message to Moses (16:11–12).

The story resumes. The Lord miraculously provides meat (16:13a) and bread (16:13b–15). The latter was something new (see 16:31 for description); its Hebrew name, mān, comes from the Israelites’ question, “What is it (Heb. mān hûʾ)?” (16:15). The Lord also gives instructions to test the Israelites’ obedience. They were to gather “as much as they need” (NIV), namely, one omer (about 2 quarts or liters) per person (16:16). The Israelites did so, meaning they gathered the right amount, no matter for many people or few (16:17–18; for a New Testament application of this passage, see 2Cor 8:10–15). They were also to consume it in one day, a command which some Israelites disobey, thus failing the test in part (16:19–20a). The Lord brings a judgment similar to what he brought on the Egyptians (compare 16:20b with 7:18, 21; 8:10), and Moses is understandably angry with the people. Presumably, they learn their lesson and begin trusting the Lord to provide their daily needs.

The instructions continue. The Israelites are to gather and prepare twice the normal amount of manna on day six so they can rest on the Sabbath, thereby honoring the Lord as their covenant God (16:22–23). (The Sabbath is introduced here for the first time; fuller instructions and explanation will come in 20:8–11.) The Israelites indeed gather and prepare twice as much as normal and see that it does not become foul as before (16:24; compare 16:20). But some still disobediently go out on the Sabbath to collect (16:27), leading to a stern rebuke from the Lord (the “you” in 16:28 is plural; the Lord’s message is for the Israelites). Once more, the people learn their lesson and begin to obey (16:30).

The story refocuses on the manna. After briefly describing it (16:31), the story moves forward in time (see esp. 16:34–35), explaining that the Israelites must commemorate the Lord’s provision of manna by placing some in a jar and keeping it in the tabernacle before the ark,²⁴ which contained the covenant tablets (the “testimony”; compare 25:16 and 31:18) (16:32–25). In this way, the Israelites would remember the Lord rescued them and also provided for their daily needs. The provision of manna in fact lasted until they reached the Promised Land and were able to partake of its produce (16:36; see Josh 5:12).

The Israelites continue their journey (cf. Num 33:5–15) and again arrive at a place without water (Exod 17:1; compare 15:22–23). In the previous stories, the Lord used such events to test Israel’s character, which is to have positive results (see at 15:22–17:7). In this story, the Israelites use this event to test the Lord (17:2), doubting his faithfulness (17:7), which the Bible prohibits as sinful unbelief (Num 14:22; Deut 6:16; Ps 95:8–9; Matt 4:7).

Even so, the Lord faithfully provides. Manifesting his presence on a rock, he has Moses strike it with the miracle-working staff, and waters flow out. This was clearly the Lord’s miraculous provision, and Israel’s elders witness it on Israel’s behalf (17:5–6). But the story ends on a negative note: the place’s two names—Massah (“testing”) and Meribah (“quarreling”) (17:7)—are sad reminders of Israel’s faithlessness and strong warnings not to repeat their actions (cf. 1Cor 10:1–13).

The Amalekites fight against the Israelites (17:8), even though they are distant cousins (Gen 36:12). Moses commands Joshua—a courageous young man who would be his assistant (Exod 33:11; Num 13:16)—to gather a fighting force (Exod 17:9a). Moses will watch the battle while holding “the staff of God” (17:9b), which represented God’s miracle-working power (7:20; 8:1, 12).

During the battle, when Moses lifted his hands (a posture of prayer) while holding the staff, Joshua prevailed. When Moses wearily lowered his hands, Amalek prevailed (17:11). The symbolism was clear: the Lord delivered his people as they prayed to him for help, so Aaron and Hur stood beside Moses, holding up his hands (17:12). (How often do we need others supporting us in prayer!) Israel was victorious (17:13).

Amelek’s action was so treacherous (cf. Deut 25:17–18) the Lord was going to blot out their memory (Exod 17:14, 16b; the meaning of 17:16a is unclear). The Lord is also called Israel’s “banner” (17:15), that is, their “leader, the one you rally around, [who] will go before you as you face the foe.”²⁵ He is the one who fights for his people (cf. Rev 19:11–16).

Exodus 18 focuses on the Lord as deliverer (18:1–12) and on how to administer his law (18:13–27), in this way bridging from the earlier chapters of the Lord’s deliverance (chs. 1–17) to the coming chapters of his giving the law (chs. 20–23). Exodus 19 introduces those chapters on law. It tells how the Israelites accepted the Lord’s invitation into covenant relationship (19:1–6) and how he appeared on Mt. Sinai (19:7–25), where he would give his covenant law.

In Exodus 4:18, Moses asked his father-in law, Jethro, for permission to return to Egypt with his wife, Zipporah, and his two sons, whose names match Moses’s experience as a sojourner (Gershom is like the Hebrew word for sojourner) and as one who experienced the Lord’s help (Eliezer means “God of help” or “God is my help”) (18:3–4). At some point after leaving for Egypt, Moses sent his family back to Midian. It is not clear whether this was before arrival in Egypt, while living in Egypt, or after being delivered from Egypt and already heading in Midian’s direction. Either way, Jethro, who heard of the Lord’s deliverance (18:1), now brings them back to Moses at Mt. Sinai (18:5).

When Jethro arrives, Moses tells him everything the Lord has done for the Israelites, delivering them from Egypt and caring for them during wilderness hardships (18:8–9). Jethro responds by praising the Lord. He focuses on the Lord as Israel’s deliverer (18:10), concluding, “Now I know”—that is, acknowledge (see at 5:2)—“that Yahweh is greater than all gods” since he has punished the Egyptians for arrogantly oppressing Israel and thus defeated the gods they worshipped (18:11). The Lord had said his deeds would lead people to “know/acknowledge” who he is (7:5), and that is what happens here. Jethro, a non-Israelite, gives him praise and partakes of a sacrificial meal of worship with his covenant people (18:12; compare 24:9–11). God’s blessing is spreading to the nations through his people (see Gen 12:3; cf. Gal 3:8).

The coming chapters describe Moses receiving the Law for the Israelites (chs. 20–23). This story prepares us for that time by telling us how the Law would be administered.

As the story begins, Moses hears cases and gives judgments all day long (18:13). When Jethro asks about this, Moses responds that God reveals his laws to Moses and Moses is therefore the one to give judgments and teach the Law (18:14–16).

Jethro points out that one man cannot act as judge for every case in the nation. Doing so will exhaust the judge and the ones who must wait so long to see him (18:17–18). Far better to share the load! Jethro tells Moses to continue in his role of receiving God’s laws and passing them on to the people (18:19–20), but also to appoint men of character as judges for various-sized groups of people, thus bearing the load with Moses and more quickly getting help to the people (18:21–23). Wise leaders seek to share leadership’s burdens when possible, for the sake of themselves and those they lead. Moses shows such wisdom here by following Jethro’s advice exactly (18:24–26).

In 18:5, we read that Jethro meets Moses at Mt. Sinai. The narrator now flashes back to say how Israel arrived there in the third month (“moon”) of the year (19:1–2).

Once there, Moses goes up the mountain to receive the Lord’s message. The Lord reminds Israel how he brought them swiftly and safely to himself (as though they were flying with eagles’ wings) and invites them into covenant relationship (19:4–6). Verses 5–6 are not saying “Obey me and earn my love.” He has just redeemed them because of his love (chs. 1–17)! “Rather, the Lord’s invitation is comparable to a king who rescues a helpless people . . . and then invites them to become his loyal subjects with all the responsibilities and benefits that entails.”²⁶ Or again, “This is like the Lord’s marriage proposal to Israel: ‘If you enter into faithful marriage with me, you will experience a husband who will guard you, watch over you, and view you as his treasured possession.’ That is not a promise to earn love; it is a promise to experience love.”²⁷ Israel was to respond to such love with obedient lives of holiness (cf. Rom 12:1), in this way reflecting the Lord’s glorious character to the world (cf. 1 Pet 2:9).

The people heartily accept the Lord’s invitation (19:8). They must now prepare for his special appearance: they would see him come in a thick cloud, hear him speak to Moses, and know for certain that Moses was his spokesman (19:9). To prepare for his holy arrival, they must purify themselves ritually (washing their clothes) and avoid things that could ritually defile them (like sexual relations) (19:10–11, 14–15). They must also avoid contact with the mountain—on pain of death!—since the Lord’s presence would make it so holy the people would defile it if they touched it (19:12–13).

On the third day, the Lord appears in a thick cloud that is flashing with lightning, roaring with thunder and a loud trumpet blast, and billowing with smoke. The people are trembling from fear and the mountain is trembling from power (19:16–18)! Moses begins speaking, and the Lord’s thunderous voice responds (19:19).

Summoning Moses to Sinai’s top, the Lord states only Moses and Aaron could come up Mt. Sinai and restates that the Israelites, including the priests, must not come onto the holy mountain to see God more directly, which would prove fatal (19:21–24; for rationale, see at 3:1–6; 33:19–23). The holy Lord must be fully respected. The New Testament emphasizes this by saying that if Israel faced judgment for refusing the old covenant at Sinai, how much more will we face judgment for refusing the far more glorious and powerful new covenant that Jesus mediates (Heb 12:18–29).

In the ancient Near East, when a king entered a covenant with a servant nation, the covenant would often describe the history between the two parties and then list obligations for the servant nation. The same happens here: the Lord describes his redemption of the Israelites (20:1–2) and then gives them laws they must follow (20:3–23:33). The covenant is confirmed by a meal, the ancient Near Eastern way of signing a contract (24:1–11).

While ancient Near Eastern kings did not necessarily have a close relationship with a servant nation, the Lord viewed Israel as his “treasured possession” (19:5). When the Lord enters a covenant with someone, it is “the type of relationship that [is] to be much more personal than a contract and much more permanent than an ordinary relationship.”²⁸ Like a good father, he longs for his children to know him (see John 14:6–7).

Before giving the Israelites his Law, the Lord reminds them of his redemption (20:1–2). Salvation does not come from keeping the Law; God’s people keep the Law in response to his wonderful salvation.

The first four commandments are more “vertical,” focusing on commitments owed directly to God, while the last six are more “horizontal,” focusing on commitments owed directly to neighbors. As often happens with laws, many of the Ten Commandments describe a minimum standard of ethical behavior one must not sink below. But each commandment also has an underlying principle that points towards an ideal of ethical behavior for which one should aim. For example, “Do not murder” identifies the bare minimum of behavior one must not commit. But its underlying principle is that life is valuable, which points towards an ideal for which to aim: helping life flourish. The righteous person is not the one who keeps to the minimum but the one who embodies the ideal. (The comments that follow focus on identifying the minimum behavior these laws describe. For a helpful discussion of the ethical ideals to which they point, see the Westminster Larger Catechism [questions 102–48] and the Heidelberg Catechism [questions 94–113], both of which are available for free online].)

The first commandment prohibits the Israelites from having any other gods before the Lord, that is, in preference to him or in addition to him (20:3). The Lord alone is whom they must worship.

The second commandment prohibits the making or worshipping of any idols (20:4). As a husband is right to be jealous when his wife commits physical adultery, the Lord is right to be jealous when his people commit spiritual adultery (20:5a). When his people show such faithlessness (“hate me”), he will punish them, and such punishment can impact the household (which often consisted of three to four generations) (20:5b). Sadly, our sin impacts those connected to us (see esp. Num 14:33). But the Lord’s real desire is for his people to be faithful (“love me”) and enjoy the steadfast love he showers on those who stay close to him (see at Exod 15:26).

The third commandment prohibits Israelites from misusing the Lord’s name in speech, as one might do by swearing a false oath in his name or blaspheming him (20:7; cf. Lev 6:3; 24:10–16). Since the name represents the person, such actions show contempt for the Lord, who will hold the person responsible.

The fourth commandment requires Israelites to set the Sabbath day apart as holy by ceasing from work (20:8–11). Doing this “to the Lord” meant they observed this day to honor him, the one they imitated by resting on the seventh day, making the Sabbath a weekly reminder that he was their covenant God. They also honored him by allowing all within the land to rest, thus showing his compassion to the world. Truly, “the Sabbath was made for man” (Mark 2:27a) and is given to us as God’s gift.

The remaining commandments focus on relationships with other people. The fifth requires people to honor their parents (20:12). When we are children, this means obedience (Eph 6:1–3); when we are adults, it means caring for aging parents (cf. Prov 19:26; 1Tim 5:4, 8). This is the only command naming a reward: care for those who live long, and the Lord will grant you long life (cf. Eph 6:1–3).

The sixth commandment prohibits murder (20:13). Because humans bear God’s image, they are to be honored, not harmed (Gen 9:6–7; cf. Jas 3:9).

The seventh commandment prohibits adultery (20:14), that is, a spouse having sexual relations with a non-spouse. Adultery betrays our spouse and dishonors God’s intent for sex, which is to be expressed only in marital love (Gen 2:18–24; Heb 13:4).

The eighth commandment prohibits stealing (20:15), taking others’ property as our own. This harms our neighbor and undermines societal stability, which depends on people’s ability to meet their material needs.

The ninth commandment prohibits testifying falsely (20:16), which brings unjust harm. “The Lord is a God of justice; his people must testify truthfully so justice may be done.”²⁹

The tenth commandment prohibits coveting anything belonging to others (20:17), that is, setting your heart on it and trying to get it. We must repent of sinful desires for others’ property instead of letting them take root and lead to sinful action.

As the people heard the Lord’s voice thunder out the Ten Commandments and experienced his awesome power displayed in the cloud, they trembled with terror and pulled back, fearing they would die if the Lord continued speaking directly to them. They ask instead that Moses hear the Lord’s voice on their behalf (20:18–19).

Moses tells them not to fear dying. The Lord has not come to kill them but to test them (would they obey his commands?) and to instill in them a fear of ever sinning against one so powerful (20:20). Nonetheless, the people’s request has been heard, and Moses returns to hear the rest of the Lord’s laws on their behalf (20:21). The Lord is always faithful to provide a mediator for his people (see 1Tim 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15).

The Lord introduces his further commands by discussing proper worship. If the Israelites worship false gods, then they cannot follow the true one.

The commands fall into three groups. First, idolatry is prohibited (20:22–23). The Israelites saw no form when God spoke to them and therefore must not make any forms to worship him, nor make forms of false gods to worship.

Second, they must worship him at places he establishes and use proper altars (20:24–25). He delights to respond to such worship with fellowship and blessing.

Finally, they must not expose their nakedness in worship (compare 28:42–43). Public nakedness was considered shameful (Isa 47:3) and thus inappropriate for the Lord’s holy worship.

The Lord continues his speech by giving stipulations to guide the Israelites in proper covenant living and to guide the legal decisions of the recently appointed judges (see 18:13–26).

Many of these stipulations are “case laws,” which describe a situation (the “case”) and then explain what to do in that situation. Such laws guide judges for the situation described and provide legal principles to apply in similar situations.

In the opening laws, the term “servant” is better than the term “slave” (note ESV footnote: “the Hebrew term ʿebed designates a range of social and economic roles”). In Israel, most people entered servitude because of debt, making them like “indentured servants” that someone “acquires” (a better translation than “buys,” 21:2) for a set period. Unlike chattel slaves, these servants could not be kidnapped (21:16), they had rights (20:10; 21:26–27), and they were to be treated with dignity (Deut 15:12–15).

The first laws address scenarios related to a male servant. After six years, he is set free without debt (21:2). If he arrives single and does not marry, he leaves single (21:3a). If he arrives with a wife, he leaves with his wife (21:3b). If the master gives him a wife and she has children (21:4), the wife and children legally belong to the master’s household because the servant had no means to give the typical betrothal gift, which would have legally released the wife from that household (cf. Gen 34:12; 22:16–17). Importantly, v. 4 is not assuming the man would leave; it is simply answering the question, “To which household do the wife and children legally belong?” What the servant is expected to do is become a lifelong servant, thus remaining with the family (and master) he loves (21:5–6). (If servants did not like their masters, they could refuse to accept a wife from them in the first place.)

In ancient Israel, marriages were typically arranged (providing your daughter with the economic security of a family and household was considered loving.) So while debt might have prompted the daughter’s sale, the eventual goal was that she marry into the master’s family, which may explain why she is not released after seven years (21:7).

Note how this section’s laws protect the female servant from unfair treatment. If the master was to marry her but later decides not to, he must let her be redeemed (by her family); he cannot sell her like a piece of property (21:8). If the master’s son was to marry her, the master must treat her like his own family (and not as a servant) (21:9). If the master marries another woman instead of her, he must continue to provide her with food, clothing, and shelter (21:10). (The word translated as “marital rights” [ESV] is rare; its root elsewhere can have the sense of “shelter,” which best fits this context.) If he does not, then she is released freely (21:11).

Six laws are given. The first three contrast murder (21:12, 14) with manslaughter (21:13). Murderers are to be executed, even if seeking sanctuary; having intentionally destroyed those in God’s image, they have forfeited their right to live (cf. Gen 9:6). Conversely, the Lord provides protection for those guilty of manslaughter since the killing was accidental (see Num 35:9–28).

Two laws describe attacking one’s parents physically (21:15) or verbally (21:17; the word “curses” signifies treating someone with hostility and desiring their harm). Such attacks are a treasonous rejection of God’s vision for society, where parents are to be honored (20:12). Like treasonous crimes in many societies throughout time, the punishment here is capital.

The final law prohibits kidnapping and human trafficking (21:16), which, like murder, profoundly disregard a human as God’s image-bearer and require the guilty to die. Human life has such high value that those who sin greatly against it are subject to the highest penalty.

Four cases are described. In the first, two men fight, and one is injured (21:18–19). If the injured party recovers, the injurer must pay for any missed work and recovery costs, but there is no further penalty. This was not an attack but a fight both parties willingly entered.

The second case presumes masters could motivate lazy servants with corporal discipline (cf. Prov 29:19). But here the discipline goes too far, and the servant dies (Exod 21:20–21). If the death was immediate, it is murder, and the dead servant is “avenged,” that is, the master is killed (compare the use of “avenged” in Gen 4:15; Lev 26:25). This would strongly discourage excessive corporal punishment (as would the laws in Exod 21:26–27). If the servant does not die immediately, it is manslaughter; due to the death’s accidental nature, blood vengeance is disallowed. (“Describing the servant as the master’s ‘money’ is not to dehumanize the servant but to point to the fact this is a commercial arrangement in which masters had the ability to administer corporal punishment.”)³⁰

The third case’s details are debated due to lack of specificity and the use of rare words (21:22–25). Clearly, two men are fighting and a pregnant woman is struck, leading to a premature birth or miscarriage. Also clear is that in one scenario a fine is required (21:22) while in another the penalty could include death (“life for life”) or fines (“eye for eye”; see below). Less clear is whether “harm” refers to the woman or her child(ren) or both in v. 22, and the same again in v. 23. I lean towards the view that 21:22 refers to a miscarriage without harm to the mother, and 21:23 refers to the mother suffering harm or death and the guilty party being punished appropriately. Two further observations are important.

First, a fine for miscarriage does not imply the child was not considered a human. Compare Job 31:15, Psalm 139:13–15, and Jeremiah 1:5, which make clear unborn children “are not simply ‘embryos’; they are little image-bearers.”³¹ The fine is allowed here as it is with a fully grown human only a few verses later (21:30–32) because in both cases the death was indirect and could be viewed as manslaughter (a view not possible with abortion). Second, “life for life, eye for eye”—known as the lex talionis—is to be taken literally in the case of murder, though in other cases it serves as a proverbial way to say the punishment must correspond to the crime (as 21:26 makes clear).

In the fourth case, a master seriously injures his servant (21:26–27). While corporal discipline was allowed (see above), it was to be reasonable. Maiming a servant crossed a line, and the servant was to be freed, delivering them from tyranny while penalizing the master financially (who lost a servant and forfeited any repayment of debt the servant owed).

Five cases deal with an ox that fatally gores someone. In the first, the ox is killed and its meat destroyed, but the ox’s owner is innocent since the ox had never acted this way before (21:28). In the second, the ox was known to be dangerous but was not properly guarded (21:29). This counts as negligent homicide, and the ox’s owner is subject to death. The third case describes a way of escape: the dead person’s family might choose to count this as manslaughter and impose a fine on the ox’s owner (21:30). The fourth case makes clear the above laws apply even when the dead person is not an adult (21:31). The fifth explains the financial compensation that comes to a master whose servant is killed (21:32); presumably, this is in addition to the stipulations of 21:29–31 (compare at 21:20).

A long series of cases is described. The first two illustrate that negligence makes one financially responsible for harm done to others’ property, even if the harm was unintentional. In the first, someone digs a pit—presumably, to collect water—but does not cover the opening, leading to an animal’s death (21:33–34). The negligent pit-digger bears financial responsibility for the harm. In the second, one man’s ox kills another’s. If the ox had never shown dangerous behavior before, no fault is assigned, and the loss is divided equally (21:35). If the ox was known to be aggressive, its owner must cover the loss due to negligence (21:36).

The next five cases deal with theft. The first illustrates that because theft, unlike negligence, is intentional harm to property, the penalty is far greater (four- or five-fold restitution instead of simple restitution) (22:1). Note also that the penalty increases in keeping with the stolen item’s value (e.g., oxen were more valuable than sheep). The second and third cases indicate when a homeowner is liable for using lethal force against a thief. If it takes place at night, when the danger posed by the burglar is not clear, the homeowner is not liable (22:2), but if it takes place during the day, liability remains since other means could presumably be used to scare the thief away (22:3a). Due to a human’s worth, lethal force must always be a last resort. The fourth case starts abruptly (the “he” of 22:3b refers to the thief). It shows that making restitution was so important that those without immediate means to do so had to pay back over time (through servitude). The final case (22:4) states the repayment penalty is less if the stolen property is recovered (200% instead of 400-500%; compare 22:1), presumably because the property owner experiences less harm (e.g., no retraining of animals is needed).

The next two cases address harm done to crops through negligence. In the first, someone does not guard their animal properly (22:5), and in the second, they let a fire get out of control (22:6). In each case, they must make full restitution, emphasis being placed on the fact that significant destruction requires repayment that is both full and robust (“from the best of his own field”).

The next cases concern theft or damage of property left in someone’s care (22:7–15). They show that repayment is due only for negligence, not for natural hazards, and emphasize that honesty in such matters is required.

If the property is stolen and the thief found, the thief pays double (22:7). If he is not found, the trustee swears his innocence (22:8) and presumably gives simple repayment for failing to guard the property (compare 22:12). If the property owner thinks the trustee still has the property (thus committing a “breach of trust”), they both come before God (cf. Deut 19:16–21), and the guilty party pays the other double (22:9).

If the property is an animal that goes out to graze and never returns due to various natural hazards, the trustee swears his innocence and is not liable (22:10–11). If the animal was not guarded properly and was stolen, the trustee is liable for negligence (22:12), but if the animal was killed by another beast, the trustee is not liable since this is a natural hazard (22:13). If the animal is borrowed (as might happen when one worked a field with an ox) and is injured, the borrower is liable if he worked it without the owner present, since the borrower was then responsible (22:14). If the owner was present to oversee, the owner is responsible (22:15a). If the animal was rented, the rental fee covers any damage to the animal (22:15b).

If a man seduces a young virgin who is betrothed, this would count as adultery (Deut 22:23–24); if she is not, this law applies. First, the seducer must give the typical “engagement present” (a better translation than “bride price”; see ESV margin) (Exod 22:16a). This was given to the woman’s family but often “returned to the woman as part of her dowry or inheritance, thus providing for her financial well-being.”³² Second, he had to marry her (22:16b), which underscored that sex and marriage go together (Gen 2:23–24) and was a further protection for the woman since Israelites so valued paternity lines that non-virgins may have had a harder time finding a spouse. Importantly, however, the young woman’s father could veto the marriage (Exod 22:17a), providing young daughters protection from foolish youthful decisions or from wily men. Even so, the engagement present must be paid, thereby providing financial security for the woman (22:17b).

Three capital crimes are listed. Each can be considered an act of treason against the Lord. (For treasonous crimes as capital offences, see at 21:12–17.) A sorceress tried to access divine power by means of spells, “either appealing to gods other than the Lord or . . . presuming they could manipulate the Lord’s own power” (22:18).³³ Bestiality was a complete rejection of God’s design for human sex, which is to be between a husband and wife (compare Gen 2:20 and 2:23–24; see also Lev 18:23) (Exod 22:19). And worshipping other gods was to deny the Lord as King (22:20; in a judgment context, the word translated “devoted to destruction” refers to giving a person over to the Lord in death).

This section’s first laws concern the socially disadvantaged. Sojourners typically owned no land, had to hire out their labor, and had little to no social power, all of which made them vulnerable to mistreatment. The Israelites had experienced such mistreatment while sojourning in Egypt and were not to repeat it (22:21). Widows and the fatherless were similarly socially powerless and often poor, attracting the Lord’s personal care. Those who mistreated them would face his certain wrath, leaving their own wives and children in the same condition as those they had oppressed (22:22–24).

The next laws concern the financially disadvantaged. Loans to poor fellow Israelites were to be interest-free so they could get themselves out of poverty (22:25; see also Lev 25:35–38). Compassionate help, not profit, is to be the lender’s motivation. If collateral is taken for the loan—such as a person’s outer garment that kept them warm at night—it must not be held in such a way that the person suffers (Exod 22:26–27). The Lord’s own compassion is to guide the lender’s actions (cf. 2Cor 8:9).

This section’s first law speaks to the general respect Israelites must show to God and the authority structures he has established. God is the ultimate authority; Israelites are not to “revile” him (see “curses” at 21:17) (22:28a). Rulers represent the civil authorities God has established (see Rom 13:1–7); Israelites are not to “curse” them, wishing them harm (Exod 22:28b; cf. Acts 23:1–5).

The next laws require Israelites to honor God’s provision by returning to him from their material blessings, be it the harvest (22:29a; cf. 23:19; Lev 23:10; 27:30), or their firstborn children and animals (Exod 22:29b–30a; for details, see at 12:51–13:16). Letting a firstborn animal spend a full week with its mother was a mark of compassion (22:30b; cf. Deut 22:6–7). “The Lord shows compassion to his creation (Pss 104:14a; 147:9; Matt 6:26); his followers must do the same.”³⁴

The final law requires Israelites to show themselves to be set apart to God (“consecrated to me”) by avoiding eating meat that makes them ritually impure (22:31; cf. Lev 17:15).³⁵ The Lord’s people honor his holiness by pursuing holy lives.

In this section, the first five laws concern legal justice. The first four prohibit harming the innocent through false testimony (23:1–2), and the last prohibits perverting justice out of compassion for the unfortunate (23:3; cf. Lev 19:15). “Justice is to be fair and impartial.”³⁶

The next two laws exhort Israelites to love their neighbors as themselves, even neighbors they dislike (“your enemy”). Just as they would want their own lost property returned (23:4) or help with one of their farm animal’s (23:5), so must they do for others (see further Deut 22:1–4). Such love reflects God’s own (cf. Luke 6:27–36).

The remaining laws return to issues of justice, perhaps focusing on judges. Justice must be impartial (23:6, 7a)—with a warning God himself will punish corruption (23:7b)—and bribes must be rejected (23:8). Israelites, who have known deep injustice as sojourners in Egypt, are to ensure the opposite for sojourners in their midst (23:9), in this way showing others the same mercy they themselves received from the Lord (cf. John 13:34; Eph 4:32–5:2).

Every seventh year, the Israelites were to let the land rest and leave its produce for the poor and the animals (23:10–11; see Lev 25:1–7, 18–22 for further details). Doing so showed the Lord’s care to his creation and the unfortunate within it. The Sabbath day command is then repeated (Exod 23:12; see at 20:8–11), and compassion for the Lord’s world and the lowly within it again feature as the rationale. He has compassion on all he has made; his people must as well.

Verse 13 requires absolute obedience to the Lord. In particular, the Israelites must worship and put their trust in his name alone.

Specific worship requirements now follow (23:14–17). Three annual feasts were to be celebrated at the Lord’s place of worship by all males as family representatives (though it appears families went together at least sometimes; cf. Deut 16:11). The first feast was Unleavened Bread (see at 12:14–20), which was celebrated with Passover (see at 12:1–13) and commemorated the Lord’s rescue of the Israelites. Everyone was to come with gifts of praise in keeping with the blessings the Lord had given them (23:15b; see Deut 16:16–17, which applies this command to all three feasts). The second feast was Harvest—known also as Weeks (Exod 34:22) and later as Pentecost (Acts 2:1)—which celebrated the Lord’s harvest provision (see further Lev 23:15–22). The third was Ingathering—also known as “Booths” (sūkkōt in Hebrew)—which also commemorated the Lord’s rescue of Israel (see Lev 23:33–43).

Four stipulations related to the feasts are now given. The first and second (23:18) emphasize that no leaven can be used during Passover and that the fat must be burned (see at 12:8–10). The third (23:19a) requires the Israelites’ best firstfruits, appropriate honor for their gracious King, while the fourth (23:19b) requires that any boiled sacrifices did not use the mother’s milk, perhaps because this seemed uncompassionate (cf. Deut 22:6–7).

Having given the covenant stipulations (21:1–23:19), the Lord emphasizes the importance of obeying them now and once in the Promised Land (23:20–24, 32–33). He also promises covenant blessings for covenant faithfulness (23:25–31).

The Lord will continue guiding the Israelites to the Promised Land by his angelic messenger (23:20; compare at 14:19–23). They must obey him as the Lord’s representative (“my name is in him”; cf. Deut 18:19), for he would judge disobedience (“he will not pardon”—that is, he will not overlook—“your transgression”) (23:21). But if they obediently follow in the Lord’s paths, they will enjoy the protection he gives to those who stay close to him (23:22; cf. Isa 40:11; John 10:11–15).

Once in the land, they must be sure not to imitate the false worship practices of its inhabitants, destroying any objects that might tempt one to unfaithfulness (23:23–24).

Instead, they are to worship and follow the Lord alone, who pours his blessings on his faithful children (23:25–31; for the relationship between obedience and blessing, see at 15:26; 19:5–6). The blessings focus on providing for physical needs: food and water, good health, fruitfulness, long life, defeat of enemies, protection from wild animals, a bountiful land, and victory in war. Underlying these physical blessings is the greatest blessing of all: covenant relationship with the Lord (compare Lev 26:3–10 with 26:11–12).

The Lord now returns to the themes of verses 23–24, emphasizing the importance of not entering into covenant relationship with idolators nor allowing them to remain in the land due to the ways they would lead the Israelites astray (23:32–33; see further 34:12–16; Num 25:1–9; cf. 2Cor 6:14–7:1).

To ratify the covenant, Moses is to gather representatives for the people and come up the mountain (24:1–2). Moses’s special status is maintained (only he can draw near the Lord), but the representatives are privileged to come up the mountain on the people’s behalf (compare 19:12).

But first, Moses goes down to the people, repeats the covenant stipulations, and the people confirm their agreement (24:3). Moses then records the stipulations (24:4a) and builds an altar and twelve pillars (24:4b). The pillars represent the twelve tribes, and the altar is commonly understood to represent the Lord. Moses then has offerings made: burnt offerings for atonement and worship, and fellowship offerings to express covenant fellowship (24:5). Taking their blood, he puts half on the altar, then reads the covenant words, which the people again agree to follow (24:6–7). Moses next sprinkles the people with the remaining blood, naming it the “blood of the covenant” and marking them with it as covenant members (24:8; cf. Luke 22:20; Heb 9:15–28).

Just as ratifying a contract today may be done by signing it, ratifying a covenant in Israel could be done by partaking of a meal (see Gen 26:28–30; cf. 1Cor 11:25). That now takes place (24:9–11). Going up the mountain, the delegation sees God—not fully, which is impossible for sinful humans (see 33:20 and note how our passage only mentions what was under the Lord’s feet), but in some way they see his glory more clearly than the Israelites at the mountain’s base. They confirm the covenant on Israel’s behalf, feasting as the divine King’s guests—and thus being assured of his protection and care (cf. 2Sam 9).

The “law and the commandment” (24:12) refers to the Ten Commandments (see 34:28; cf. Deut 10:4), which are foundational to the covenant that was just confirmed and can represent it. Moses is joined by his assistant, Joshua (24:13; see at 17:9), and Aaron and Hur are left in charge of the camp (24:14; compare 32:1–6).

Moses goes up the mountain, and the Lord’s cloud of glory covers it (24:15–18). The Lord’s “glory” often refers to a display of his power so magnificent that the proper response was to glorify him (see 14:17–31; Pss 8:1; 19:1; cf. Heb 10:28–29). There is no consensus among commentators why the Lord waited seven days to call Moses into the cloud.³⁷ What is clear is that Moses alone is summoned into the King’s courts. This special relationship means any words he brings down the mountain can be trusted as coming from the King himself.

The Lord was a covenant King who wanted to dwell among his people and have relationship with them, so he gives instructions for building his royal palace-tent in their midst.

The people are to contribute the tent’s material, with emphasis placed on its voluntary nature (25:1–2; cf. 2Cor 9:7).

Many of the materials listed were exactly suited for a King’s tent, either due to their costliness (gold, silver) or their use elsewhere in royal contexts (for “fine twined linen,” see Gen 41:42; for “blue, purple, scarlet,” see 2Sam 1:24; Esth 1:6; Ezek 23:6). Presumably, many materials came from the despoiling of the Egyptians (12:35–36), meaning the tent would remind the people of the Lord’s presence and also of his deliverance.

The Lord states his purpose for the tent: “that I may dwell in their midst” (25:8). From beginning to end in the biblical story, God comes down to dwell with his people (cf. Gen 3:8–9; Rev 21:3–4), the most dramatic example being his taking on human flesh in the person of Jesus, the God-man, who came to dwell among us (John 1:14). He also commands that the tabernacle, which will be central to how the Israelites worship the Lord, be built exactly according to his commands (25:9). The Israelites must approach the Lord on his terms, not theirs.

Having identified the tabernacle’s materials, the Lord now describes how to construct it. We may begin with a broad overview of what it looked like when fully assembled:

Most broadly speaking, it consisted of a frame with four coverings and measured 45ft. (13.7m) long by 15ft. (4.6m) wide and high . . . More specifically speaking, its frame was made of gold-covered acacia frames that were fastened together into a roofless rectangular box that was oriented lengthwise on an east-west axis. On the east of the rectangle was a screened entrance. The screen was made of blue, purple, and scarlet wool as well as fine linen—colors and materials fit for a king . . . Inside the rectangle there were two rooms. Entering from the east, the first room was known as the Holy Place and measured 30ft. (9.1m) long by 15ft. (4.6m) high and wide. It contained an incense altar, a lamp, and a table, all made of gold or covered with gold, just as one might expect in a king’s palace. At the far end of the room was a veil made of the same materials as the screen and with cherubim woven into it, speaking to the heavenly nature of the dwelling and symbolically guarding the way into the second room behind it. That room was known as the Most Holy Place, which measured 15ft. (4.6m) square and was the Lord’s throne room. It contained the ark of the covenant, a rectangular box overlaid with gold and with a solid golden lid. Four different coverings then went over the frame. The first was a series of curtains joined together that likely covered the top, back, and most of the sides of the frame. They were made similarly to the veil so that those standing in the tabernacle would see cherubim seemingly floating above them, an appropriate setting for the heavenly Lord’s dwelling. The second covering was a series of curtains joined together that were made of woven goat’s hair, while the third and fourth coverings were made of animal skins, all of which would protect the tent from the elements. Outside the tent’s entrance was a laver and the altar of burnt offering, which stood in a courtyard marked out by joined curtains that formed a rectangular wall measuring 150ft. (45.7m) long by 75ft. (22.9m) wide by 7.5ft. (2.29m) high. Like the tent, its entrance was to the east and covered by a screen made of the same royal materials (blue, purple, and scarlet wool and fine linen). In short, from the courtyard’s entrance to the very interior room of the tent, royal and heavenly symbolism were very strong. This was the palace-tent of the King of heaven.³⁸

The instructions begin with three pieces of furniture that stood within the tabernacle (25:10–40). The most important was the ark, a large wooden box that sat in the Most Holy Place. Assuming a cubit of 18 inches (45 cm), the ark measured 3.75 feet long by 2.25 feet wide and high (1.1m x .7m x .7m) (25:10). Four further observations may be made.

First, other texts refer to it as Lord’s footstool (1Chr 28:2; Ps 132:7–8), making the Most Holy Place the Lord’s throne room where he sits enthroned over the ark, attended by his heavenly servants, the cherubim (2Sam 6:2; Pss 80:1; 99:1). That his throne room is in the Most Holy Place emphasizes that he is a King of supreme holiness.

Second, the ark is covered in “pure gold,” that is, highest quality gold (cf. Gen 2:12; Job 28:16). Nothing less is worthy of so great a King.

Third, because it contained the covenant tablets, it is called “the ark of the testimony” (25:21–22) and “the ark of the covenant” (Num 10:33). The Lord himself sits over the covenant tablets as divine witness. He will be faithful to his covenant promises; Israel must be faithful to theirs (cf. John 14:20–21).

Finally, because the Lord knows that his people will fail, he provides the ark with an “atonement lid” (ESV: “mercy seat”), which becomes central to the atonement rites of the great Day of Atonement (Lev 16:14–16). The Septuagint’s word that describes this lid (hilastērios) is the same word that describes Jesus as a “propitiation” (Rom 3:25), the one who cleanses our sin and turns away God’s wrath. Jesus is the ultimate provision of atonement for sin!

The Holy Place had three pieces of furniture. The first was a gold-covered wooden table measuring 3 feet wide, 1.5 feet deep, and 2.25 feet high (.9m x .5m x .7m) (25:23). It had vessels for food and drink (25:29) and held “the bread of the Presence” (25:30), twelve loaves representing Israel’s twelve tribes and signifying their ongoing covenant relationship with the Lord (Lev 24:8; see at Exod 24:9–11 for the connection of food and covenants).

The next piece of furniture was the golden lampstand. (For the third piece—the golden incense altar—see 30:1–10.) It stood on the southern side (or left as one faced the veil), opposite the table on the northern side (or right) (26:35). It was made from a “talent” of pure gold (25:39)—roughly 75 pounds (34 kg). It looked like a beautiful, golden flowering tree, having six branches and one trunk (the “stem”), all with almond blossoms. Its seven lamps were positioned to cast golden light towards the bread of the Presence.

The lamp and table together made clear that the Lord was present among his people. “If there is a lamp burning, incense burning and bread on the table, then someone is ‘home.’”³⁹ (Compare Jesus’s presence among his churches today; Rev 1:12–13, 20; 2:1.)

Four coverings went over the tabernacle’s frame. The first measured 60 feet by 42 feet (18.3m by 12.8m) and was made of ten ornate curtains joined together (26:1–6). Woven with heavenly beings (cherubim), it would have made clear to priests standing in the tent that they were in the heavenly King’s dwelling. It would have fully covered the back and top of the tabernacle and covered the side walls to within 1.5 feet (45cm) of the ground, leaving the front open for the screen (26:36–37).

The second covering was made of goat’s hair and measured 66 feet by 45 feet (20.1m by 13.7m), making it larger than the first covering and able to cover it (26:7–13). Two further coverings—of tanned rams’ skins and goatskins (26:14)—provided further protection from the elements.

The tabernacle’s skeleton had the shape of a three-sided rectangular box made of three walls: two longer ones (north and south sides), measuring 45 feet (13.7m) long by 15 feet (4.6m) high and wide, and a shorter one (western end), often assumed to measure 15 feet (4.6m) square. There was no wall at the entrance (eastern end). The walls were made of gold-covered “frames,” perhaps resembling ladders that inserted like “tenons” (or “tabs”) into a silver base (26:17, 19).⁴⁰ Gold-covered crossbars further strengthened the walls (26:26–29).

A “veil” inside the tabernacle hung from hooks on four gold-covered pillars. It divided the Most Holy Place from the Holy Place. Like the first covering, it had woven cherubim, which may be understood as symbolically guarding the Lord’s throne room from improper entry (cf. Gen 3:24). Its placement was a reminder that the Israelites’ sins and impurities separated them from full enjoyment of the Lord’s holy presence. The New Testament records that Jesus’s sacrificial death resulted in the veil being torn in two (Matt 27:50–51). His sacrifice was so powerful that sin and impurity have been fully dealt with, clearing the way for the full fellowship with God for which we have been created (Heb 10:19–20).

At the tabernacle’s entrance was the “screen,” which was like the veil though without cherubim. Instead, it was “embroidered with needlework,” perhaps suggesting a colorful pattern or design. It was hung on five pillars with bronze bases. This contrasts with the veil’s bases, which were of silver. The closer one came to the Lord’s presence, the more costly the materials became, as one might expect when drawing nearer to a king’s throne room.

The courtyard altar was a relatively large wooden box, measuring 7.5 feet square and 4.5 feet high (2.3m by 2.3m by 1.4m) (27:1; for the smaller incense altar, see at 30:1–10). It was covered in bronze and had four “horns” (27:2), horn-like projections that featured in certain rites where they seem to represent the altar (cf. Lev 8:15). It also had various bronze implements necessary for tending sacrifices (27:3).

A bronze “network” or “net”—the same word describes a trapper’s net (Prov 1:17)—went under a ledge surrounding the altar (Exod 27:4–5). Commentators debate its exact location and purpose, though it clearly had rings attached to it to hold poles for carrying the altar (27:6–8a). The Lord again emphasizes the Israelites must make it according to his pattern (27:8b; compare 25:9, 40; 26:30). Worship must always be according to what God reveals, not what we invent.

Because the altar stood outside the tent’s entrance (40:6), the Israelites could make their sacrifices “before the Lord” (Lev 3:1). The altar was central to worship. “Altars linked earth to heaven. They were the interface between the Israelites and the Lord, translating their physical offerings into prayers of forgiveness, petition, and worship. As such, having an altar was of fundamental importance. ‘A tabernacle with no functioning altar would be like a body with no heart.’”⁴¹

The tabernacle was surrounded by a courtyard that was 150 feet long (45.7m) on the north and south by 75 feet wide (22.9m) on the east and west, roughly a quarter of an acre (a tenth of a hectare), or one-seventh the size of an international soccer field. The courtyard was marked out by a series of curtains 7.5 feet (2.3m) high, supported by pillars every 7.5 feet (2.3m). A special curtain centered on the eastern side served as an entrance (“gate”) and was like the tabernacle’s screen (compare 26:36).

The golden lampstand’s oil was to be “pure”—meaning either unmixed with spices (compare 30:22–25) or free of impurities or both—and “beaten,” a type of oil given elsewhere to a king (1Kgs 5:11). By ordering the priests to keep it burning throughout the night, the Lord emphasized his ongoing presence and taught his people to serve him continually (see at 25:31–40).

Having described the tabernacle, the Lord now describes its priests, setting apart Aaron and his sons for this role (28:1). (Other families in Levi’s tribe will guard and transport the tabernacle but not serve as priests; see Num 3:5–4:49).

Because priests serve at the Lord’s ritually holy tabernacle, they must wear a ritually holy uniform, which will be “for glory and for beauty” (28:2), perhaps better translated “for glory and for honor.” Just as a king’s robe indicates he is to be given special honor, the priests’ uniforms were to teach the Israelites to honor the priests (and Christians are similarly to respect and honor church leaders; see 1Thess 5:12; 1Tim 5:17; Heb 13:17). The priests’ uniforms will in fact help them transition into that ritually holy state at their ordination (28:3), comparable to how putting on a crown helps a prince transition into being king at his coronation. Naturally, the priests’ need for ritual holiness would constantly remind them to pursue and model moral holiness (compare 1Tim 3:1–13).

Making these garments would require special skill (28:3; see further at 31:1–11). Various pieces of the high priest’s uniform in particular are listed (28:4) and now become the focus.

Not surprisingly, the special materials appropriate for the Lord’s royal home are the same considered appropriate for the uniform of its chief royal servant (28:5; compare 25:4). The uniform’s main pieces are described.

Ephod (28:6–14). Questions surround its exact size and shape, but various facts are clear. First, its materials were beautiful and costly, with yarns of royal colors (28:6; see at 25:3–7) and threads of gold woven throughout (28:6), perhaps giving it a golden shininess. It had a matching band that secured the ephod to the body (28:8; 29:5).

Second, the two shoulder pieces each held one precious stone, and each stone had six of the twelve tribes’ names inscribed on it. Aaron bore these “stones of remembrance . . . before the Lord . . . for remembrance” (28:12), that is, so the Lord would show the Israelites his covenant faithfulness. (Biblically, the Lord’s “remembrance” does not refer to a mental activity as much as to practical favor towards his people; see Gen 9:15–16; Exod 2:24.) By bearing these stones before the Lord, the high priest was essentially praying for the Israelites by name, asking the Lord to shine his favor on them. (For the intercessory role of church leaders today, see Acts 6:4; 1Thess 1:3; Phil 1:3–5. For the intercessory role of Jesus, our great High Priest, see Heb 7:23–26.)

Breastpiece (28:15–30). Made of the same royal materials as the ephod, the breastpiece was a square pouch, each side one span (usually assumed to be about 9 inches [23 cm]) (28:15–16). On its front were twelve precious stones, each inscribed with an Israelite tribe’s name (28:17–21). It also had four golden rings by which it was fastened to the ephod (28:22–28).

The breastpiece had two main functions. First, its stones were “to bring [the Israelites] to regular remembrance before the Lord” (28:29). By wearing them, the high priest was effectively praying for the Lord to bless Israel (see at 28:12). Indeed, the stones are compared to “signets” (28:21), which were used to stamp clay or wax seals with the owner’s image or name and thus represented the owner. By wearing these, the high priest showed that his actions were done on the Israelites’ behalf; he sought favor for them from the Lord.

Second, the breastpiece was used to seek God’s will on certain matters by means of the Urim and Thummim inside of it (28:30). These were a system of lots by which the high priest somehow sought the Lord’s direction (Num 27:21; see esp. ESV or NIV of 1Sam 14:41–42). Their presence led to the name “breastpiece of judgment,” which is sometimes translated “breastpiece of decision” (NIV), since it made clear the Lord’s decisions on various matters (cf. Prov 16:33).

In short, the wearing of the breastpiece “was a way for the high priest to pray, ‘Just as the Israelites are on my heart and in my thoughts, O Lord, may they be on your heart and in your thoughts! May you bless them, provide for them, care for them, and would you do this especially as they seek your guidance and will!’”⁴²

The robe (28:31–35). Worn under the ephod was a blue robe with an opening for the head (28:31–32). The opening’s woven collar prevented it from being torn. Tearing clothing was a sign of formal mourning (Gen 37:34), which high priests were forbidden from doing because mourning rites resulted in ritual impurity through contact with the corpse (Lev 21:10–11).

The garment’s hem had alternating pomegranates and golden bells (28:33–34). The latter announced the high priests’ coming and going (28:35), perhaps as a way for him to show respect, comparable to knocking on a door before entering and saying “goodbye” when leaving.⁴³ Failure to show such respect to the heavenly King would be a lethal mistake (28:35b).

The golden plate (28:36–38). The high priest wore a turban of fine linen (28:37, 39). On its front was a golden plate, referred to elsewhere as a crown (29:6; 39:30). Clearly, he was the Lord’s chief royal servant.

The plate was inscribed “Holy to the Lord” (28:36), identifying the high priest as belonging to the Lord in a special way (cf. Lev 27:14, 21). And since he represents the Israelites, the plate essentially repeats what the Lord earlier told them: “You shall be to me a treasured possession” (Exod 19:5, emphasis mine).

The Lord’s focus, however, is on the plate’s ability to enable the high priest to “bear any guilt from the holy things that the people of Israel consecrate as their holy gifts” (28:38), that is, if there was any unknown fault with an offering the people presented, the high priest was able to bear away the guilt that would have normally resulted. Commentators debate how the plate enabled the high priest to do this. What is clear is that offerers could know their offerings were pleasing to the Lord and they themselves would be favorably accepted before him because of the high priest’s work. Such favorable acceptance now happens through Jesus’s high priestly work (Heb 2:17; 7:26–8:2). Indeed, as the perfect high priest who is also the perfect atoning sacrifice, Jesus “sanctifies” his followers (Heb 10:10, 14; 13:12). “What the high priest in Israel did with the Israelites’ offerings—making them ‘holy to the Lord’—Jesus does with his followers!”⁴⁴

The coat, turban, and sash (28:39). The “coat” (or “tunic,” NIV) decently covered the body (see Gen 3:21) and went under the robe (Exod 29:5). The word for “turban” is built on a root meaning “to wind, roll” (see Isa 22:18), though the turban’s exact shape remains unclear. The sash was embroidered with the same precious yarns as the ephod and its band (compare Exod 28:6, 8) and was tied around the waist (Lev 8:7).

Like the high priest, the regular priests’ garments are “for glory and for honor” (see at 28:1–4). But they are simpler in number (their uniforms had fewer items) and material (the same rich decorating is missing). Clearly, they have a lesser role and office than the high priest (compare a soldier’s simpler uniform with a general’s more elaborate one).

Being clothed with priestly garments was central to the upcoming ordination ceremony (see at 28:3).

Priests’ undergarments are mentioned last, perhaps because they are not “for glory and for honor” like the rest of the uniform.⁴⁵ But they are vitally important lest the priests expose their nakedness (see at 20:22–26).

Having described the garments necessary for the priests’ ordination ceremony, the Lord now describes that ceremony. The ceremony itself takes place in Leviticus 8.⁴⁶

Ceremonies and their rituals function in important ways. “A marriage ceremony . . . involves many different rituals that . . . transition a person from one state (single) to another state (married). Similarly, Aaron and his sons will go through an ordination ceremony with many different rituals . . . that . . . will transfer them from one state (lay Israelites) to another state (ritually holy priests).”⁴⁷

The Lord describes the ceremony’s purpose: Aaron and his sons becoming ritually holy so they could serve as priests (29:1a). He also identifies the materials needed for the rituals (29:1b–3).

Washing and clothing the priests; anointing Aaron (29:4–9). Since Aaron and his sons were becoming the Lord’s priests, the ceremony must take place before him (29:4a). First, they would be washed with water, a rite frequently associated with ritual purification (29:4; compare 30:18–21; Lev 14:9; etc.).

Next, they would put on their priestly garments, starting with Aaron (29:5–6). By pouring the holy anointing oil on Aaron’s head, Moses would both consecrate him and set him apart as the priests’ leader (Lev 21:10; cf. 1Sam 10:1).

Clothing the regular priests is then briefly described (29:8–9a) along with a reminder of the clothing’s function (29:9b).

The purification offering (29:10–14). Everything would now be in place for the ceremony’s three main sacrifices. The first is traditionally known as the “sin offering” but increasingly known as the “purification offering.”⁴⁸ Aaron and his sons would first “lay their hands on the head of the bull” (29:10), indicating it was offered on their behalf. Priests needed atonement as much as other Israelites (cf. Heb 5:1–3). The bull would then be slaughtered, and Moses would perform a rite with its blood (Exod 29:11–12). Because sin and impurity defiled the Lord’s dwelling place (cf. Lev 16:16, 19), Moses would take the blood—a powerful cleansing agent (cf. Lev 16:19 and see 1Jn 1:7, 9)—and place some on the burnt offering altar’s horns. This purified the altar (cf. Lev 4:5–7) and, insofar as it represented the tabernacle, the entire tabernacle as well. Pouring the remaining blood at the altar’s base was perhaps a means of proper disposal.

The offering’s fat portions, which represented the meat’s best part, would then be burned on the altar to honor the Lord as the one worthy of the best (29:13; see Lev 3:16–17). And while priests ate remaining portions “of the people’s purification offerings (Lev 6:24–30), they were forbidden from eating their own (Exod 29:14), perhaps because it was inappropriate for them to gain some benefit from their own sin.”⁴⁹

The burnt offering (29:15–18). The burnt offering could atone for the offerer’s general sinfulness (Lev 1:4) and acknowledge the Lord as worthy of all praise (Ps 66:13–20). Both functions could be at work here: atoning for the priests and allowing them to praise the Lord in costly sacrifice (the burnt offering was the only one entirely burned on the altar).

The translation “food offering” (29:18) is perhaps better “offering by fire” (ESV margin). In either case, it does not imply the Lord literally needed food (see Ps 50:13). Similarly, the phrase “pleasing aroma” does not mean the Lord literally smelled the smoke. Rather, this phrase shows the offering’s goal was for the Lord to be “pleased with the offerer and favorably accepts the smoke as representing a legitimate sacrifice presented with heartfelt worship (cf. Gen 8:21; Ezek 20:41).”⁵⁰

The ordination offering (29:19–28). As suggested by their similarities, the ordination offering was a type of peace offering (compare 29:20 with Lev 3:2; Exod 29:22, 25 with Lev 3:3–5; Exod 29:34 with Lev 7:15–18). Offering one here was appropriate since peace offerings served as meals that confirmed a covenant (see at 24:1–11), and the priesthood was a covenantal promise to Aaron and his sons (Num 18:19; 25:13; cf. Jer 33:21; Mal 2:4). In short, having made atonement for their sin and given the Lord costly praise, the priests would now confirm the covenant of priesthood the Lord was giving them.

The bull’s slaughtering would be followed by a blood ritual: Moses would place it on the extremities of Aaron and his sons–from top to bottom–to make their whole body holy (29:20; compare at 29:10–14). A second ritual would then be performed with the blood and the anointing oil.⁵¹ These liquids could cleanse and consecrate (see at 29:7, 12), and both are sprinkled on Aaron and his sons, not cleansing or consecrating for the first time (see 29:7, 20), “but deepening their holiness, much like a second coat of paint deepens the color of the first.”⁵²

A wave offering would be next (9:22–25). “Waving an item before the Lord appears to have been a way to dedicate the object to him (cf. Num 8:15–16). Moses would do this on the priest’s behalf, using some of the animal’s best portions: the fat (see at 29:13) and the right thigh (cf. 1Sam 9:24). He would also present various unleavened breads made of the finest flour (see 29:2). In this way, the priests would be dedicating the very best to the Lord and thereby acknowledging his greatness.”⁵³ For 29:25, see at 29:15–18.

Moses would present the breast as a wave offering, which would then belong to him (29:26; cf. Lev 7:31). We also learn that what happens in this ceremony sets a pattern for future peace offerings, when these same portions would be set aside as holy to the Lord for the priests (Exod 29:27–28; see Lev 7:28–35).

Aside: High priestly garments (and office) pass to Aaron’s descendants (29:29–30). A natural circumstance is now anticipated: when the high priest dies, his office and clothes pass to his son, presumably the eldest (Num 20:26–28), who then has his own seven-day ordination ceremony.

The remaining meat and bread of the ordination offering (29:31–34). Returning to the holy ordination offering of ram and breads, the Lord makes clear these must be prepared and eaten in a holy place and only by holy people, not lay people (“outsiders”; see Lev 22:10). Burning leftovers may have been to reduce the risk of defiling it.

Summary (29:35). The ordination process will take seven days. Since the number seven represented fullness (see Gen 4:15; Lev 4:6), this seven-day process represented a thorough consecration of the priests. It appears the sacrifices were to be repeated each of the seven days (see Exod 29:36; Lev 8:31–35).

Along with the priests, the altar also became holy during the ordination ceremony, through both sacrifice for purification and anointing for consecration (presumably with the holy anointing oil) (29:36).⁵⁴ It would now be “most holy,” meaning it could communicate ritual holiness to whoever touched it (29:37).

Once consecrated, the altar would be ready for use on the Israelites’ behalf, which was of fundamental importance for their relationship with God (see at 27:1–8). One such use was the presenting of daily burnt offerings on Israel’s behalf. “First commanded in Exodus 29:38–42 (cf. Lev 6:8–13), the Israelites were to present a continual burnt offering of two lambs each day, one in the morning and the other in the evening. The finest ingredients are called for, whether for the animals (year-old lambs without blemish) or for the grain and drink offerings accompanying them (the finest flour, oil from [beaten] olives,⁵⁵ and [wine]). This was an offering fit for the King.”⁵⁶ Moreover, since burnt offerings could atone as well as express costly praise (see at 29:15–18), “the Israelites’ day was . . . bordered, morning and evening, with a collective prayer: ‘You, O Lord our King, dwell in our midst and are worthy of our most costly praise! Look on us with favor! Forgive our sin! Receive our praises and give ear to our cries for help!’”⁵⁷ (For the Christians’ call to offer regular worship through Jesus, see Heb 13:15–16.)

Having spoken of the daily offering that would be brought before him at the tent (29:42), the Lord returns to the tent’s purpose: to serve as a place for him to meet with the Israelites (29:43; compare 25:8). He explains that his glorious presence will come down on the tent and set it apart as holy (see 40:34–35) and that he will consecrate everything connected to it so that he might “dwell among the people of Israel and . . . be their God” (29:44–45). The phrase “I will be their God” uses a form of Hebrew phrase that is “similar to that describing adoption (Exod 2:10a) and marriage (Gen 24:67a), thus referring to a very close relationship. The Lord does not simply want to live in Israel’s midst; his goal has always been relationship (cf. Exod 6:7; 19:5; Deut 4:20; 7:6; 26:18; 2Sam 7:23–24).”⁵⁸

He underscores this one final time, making clear that his presence in their midst would show Israel that he rescues people not simply to deliver them, but to know them—and for them to know him (29:46). “For the Lord, redemption is always for the sake of relationship.”⁵⁹ It is for this very reason that Jesus came in the flesh to “dwell” among us (John 1:14; cf. Exod 29:45–46), that God dwells among his church today by his Spirit (2Cor 6:16), and that in the final days he will once again make his dwelling among his redeemed people—wiping away every tear from their eyes (Rev 21:3–4).

Why is this not described in Exodus 25 with the Holy Place’s other pieces of furniture? Perhaps because of the parallels between it and the burnt offering altar that was just mentioned (compare 29:36–37 with 30:10; 29:38–39 with 30:7–8; 29:42 with 30:6, 8). In short, like things are grouped together.

In terms of form (30:1–5), the altar was an acacia-wood box, covered in gold, 3 feet (90cm) tall and 1.5 feet (45cm) square. It had “horns” on its top four corners (see at 27:2) and a “molding” and golden rings for carrying it on poles (compare 25:24, 26–28).

In terms of placement and purpose (30:6–8), it stood in the Holy Place opposite the ark, which rested on the other side of the curtain in the Most Holy Place.⁶⁰ Since the Lord’s presence appeared above the ark (30:6), this altar’s offerings were made directly before him. Later texts compare incense offerings to prayer (Ps 141:2; Rev 5:8), but already here we can see their purpose is to seek the Lord’s favor and help, since they create a pleasing aroma to him (compare at Exod 29:15–18) and parallel the morning and evening burnt offering (compare at 29:36–42).

The Lord prohibits the use of unauthorized incense on the altar (for authorized incense, see 30:34–38) and any other type of offering (animal, cereal, or drink) (30:9). We also learn that a special atonement rite will be carried out on its horns once a year (30:10; compare at 29:10–14), which is assumed, but not described, in the Day of Atonement instructions (Lev 16:16b).⁶¹ This would maintain the altar’s “most holy” status by cleansing it of any defilement caused by Israel’s sin and impurity so that priests could continue to use it on Israel’s behalf.⁶²

Taking a census in ancient Israel was considered a dangerous act that resulted in God’s lethal judgment (which is the sense of “plague” in v. 12; cf. 12:13; Num 16:46–49). The reason is nowhere explained; guesses vary widely and remain that—guesses. Whatever the danger’s reason, it could be averted by a “ransom” payment, which refers to a payment made by guilty parties to rescue their lives (see Exod 21:29–30; Num 35:31–32). The payment is here called “atonement money” since ransom is central to atonement and since the money atoned for the Israelites’ lives (Exod 30:16).⁶³ The money was to be used to make various tabernacle components (see 38:25–27) that would bring the Israelites “to remembrance before the Lord”; that is, the components would be a visible reminder in the tabernacle of the Israelites’ request for atonement and for the Lord’s protection and favor (see at 28:12).

The tax was half a shekel of silver—roughly 0.2 oz. (5.5-6 g)—and the “shekel of the sanctuary” is the standard noted, thus assuring a consistent measure (30:13). It was to be given by all who would be counted in a census for war (see Num 1:3). That all were to give the same amount, whether rich or poor (Exod 30:15), speaks to the fact that all bear God’s image and have equal value in his eyes.

Priests’ hands and feet potentially had contact with ritual impurity from the world around them. Washing with water was one means of cleansing it (see Lev 22:6). By doing so before entering the Lord’s tabernacle or serving at his altar (Exod 30:20), the priests honored him as a holy God who requires purity in all of life, not just ritually, but also morally (see at 28:1–4). If they failed to do so, they would be blaspheming by treating him as a God who cared little for purity. This would lead to a fatal judgment that would make clear they had committed treason against the King of kings (30:20–21). The Lord must be honored by all and especially by those who lead his people (cf. 1Sam 2:27–36; 3:10–14).

The water was held in a bronze basin and stand that was placed between the altar and tent (30:18). The bronze came from polished bronze mirrors owned by women “who ministered in the entrance to the tent of meeting” (38:8). In Hebrew, similar language describes the non-priestly work done by Levite men (Num 4:23; 8:24), suggesting these women also helped in non-priestly ways to ensure the tabernacle and its worship could continue. Given metal’s high value in the ancient Near East, the women’s gift would have been truly costly, pointing to the profound depth of their devotion and love (cf. John 12:3–9).

In ancient Israel, spices were costly since they were labor intensive to produce and often came from distant lands. They were so costly they could be brought as gifts to kings and are mentioned together with gifts like gold (1Kgs 10:10; Isa 60:6). (This continued to New Testament times: the magi brought gold, frankincense, and myrrh to give to newly born King Jesus [Matt 2:11].) This meant the holy anointing oil and incense, both of which had various spices, were fit for use in the tent-palace of Israel’s holy King, the Lord.

The anointing oil was made of approximately thirty-seven pounds (17 kg.) of spices and one gallon (3.8 l.) of olive oil (30:23–24). The spices were perhaps soaked in water and oil and the water then boiled off, or the oil skimmed off, to get an oil infused with the spice’s essence.⁶⁴ This was a complicated process, explaining why a perfumer was needed (30:25).

This oil was especially holy and would be used to anoint the tabernacle and its furniture, making them ritually holy and therefore suitable as the Lord’s palace and furniture (30:26–29). It was also placed on Aaron and his sons, making them ritually holy and therefore able to serve the holy Lord in his holy courts (30:30). Naturally, such ritual holiness was to be matched by moral holiness. Those whom the Lord sets apart as holy are expected to live in keeping with that holy status (cf. 2Cor 6:16–7:1).

Because this was the Lord’s holy anointing oil, it was to be used only in his palace and for his purposes. Anyone who made it and placed it on “an ordinary person”—that is, an “outsider” to the priestly family—would be using the Lord’s oil for purposes he never intended. This would be a severe act of disloyalty and would face an equally severe penalty: being “cut off from [one’s] people” (30:31–33), which might refer to excommunication but could include death itself (compare 31:14). Either way, disloyalty to the King means being separated from his people.

As for the holy incense, it would be kept by the incense altar in the tent of meeting (compare 30:36 with 30:6) and offered twice daily to the Lord (see 30:7–8), in this way seeking his favor (see at 30:6–8). Along with the spices, it was to be “salted” (30:35), as were all offerings, since salt served as a reminder of the perpetual nature of the covenant relationship between Israel and the Lord (Lev 2:12; Num 18:19; why salt served as this type of reminder is unclear). Like the oil, the incense was considered the Lord’s special property, and those who made it for their own use faced the same penalty as above: being cut off from their people (Exod 30:37–38).

So who would make all the beautiful tabernacle furniture, materials, and priestly clothing? Those divinely gifted to do so, as the Lord now explains.

The chief master artisan was Bezalel, from the tribe of Judah and related to Hur (31:1–2), possibly the same Hur mentioned earlier (see 17:10–13). The Lord says, “I have filled him with the Spirit of God” (31:3a), which refers here not to salvation (though we may assume Bezalel has genuine faith) but to divine gifting: the Lord has divinely gifted Bezalel with wisdom,⁶⁵ intelligence, and knowledge to perform all sorts of craftsmanship (31:3–5). This means the work of artisans is within the sphere of God’s involvement and concern; he gifts the wood worker as much as the preacher, which makes both jobs holy callings (cf. 1Tim 4:4–5). Verse 5 also teaches that wisdom and intelligence do not simply refer to having a high IQ; they extend to someone’s ability to work well with their hands. We must therefore value and honor different types of intelligence, especially if our society prioritizes high IQs as that which really matters.

Oholiab, from the tribe of Dan, is Bezalel’s fellow master artisan. A later text describes his particular areas of skill, which are complementary to Bezalel’s (compare 38:23 with 31:4–5). Together, they could oversee all the tabernacle work and teach other gifted artisans who worked under them (see 35:34).

Those artisans are briefly described. The Lord emphasizes again that he is the one who has gifted them with the necessary wisdom for the work: “And into the heart of all those who are wise of heart, I have placed wisdom, that they might make everything that I have commanded” (31:6b, author’s translation; see n. 65). Later verses in Exodus make clear this gifting extended to women as much as to men (35:25–26).

The Lord now lists the various tabernacle items that he has commanded to be made (31:7–11a). He also begins and ends the list by mentioning that all these things must be made according to his command (31:6c, 11b), underscoring the importance of obedience in all things. One honors a king by following his commands exactly.

If the tabernacle was to be honored as holy space, the Sabbath was to be honored as holy time. This passage gives the reasons for honoring it and describes the penalty for desecrating it.

The Lord sets the Israelites apart as his special people (“sanctifies” them). They were to keep the Sabbath as a “sign” of this relationship. When the Lord entered a covenant with someone, he often named a “sign” to represent it, such as the rainbow with Noah (Gen 9:12, 13, 17) or circumcision with Abraham (Gen 17:11). To use a modern analogy, as a wedding ring represents the covenant of marriage, keeping the Sabbath was to represent Israel’s covenant with the Lord. After all, he rested on the seventh day after his work of creation (31:17). The Israelites showed they followed him by modeling their week on his.

Israelites were also to keep the Sabbath because the Lord had set it apart as holy. Failure to keep it was to reject the covenant and its Lord and to desecrate his holy property. “The punishment therefore fits the crime . . . Those who reject the covenant sign are cut off from the covenant community. Those who desecrate that which is holy experience judgment from the Holy One. Those who reject the covenant King experience the penalty often given to the treasonous: death itself. Having rejected the earth’s Creator, the guilty had rejected their right to live in his creation.”⁶⁶

These verses repeat the rationale given in 31:12–13 and elaborate on it, reintroducing the idea of rest (for details, see at 20:8–11; 23:12). (The idea of “rest” is picked up on in the New Testament, where it represents the salvation we experience through faith in Jesus, the Lord of the Sabbath and the one who achieves final rest for us. See Heb 3–4, esp. 4:9.) Saying that the Lord was “refreshed” (31:17) does not mean he grew tired (cf. Isa 40:28). The Lord uses a very human description to make clear, “If the all-powerful Lord ceased from his labors on day seven, how much more should his weak and finite creatures do the same.”

For the moment, the Lord has finished giving Moses instructions. He therefore gives him two stone tablets with “testimony,” that is, with covenant commands (compare 25:16) that the Lord himself has written. We later learn these are the Ten Commandments in particular (34:28), an apt summary of the entire covenant.

In the ancient Near East, two parties entering a covenant would sometimes make two copies of the covenant—one for each party—and then each place their copy in a temple so their respective god could serve as witness to it. If the same is true here, then each tablet—Israel’s copy and the Lord’s copy—had a copy of the Ten Commandments, with both tablets being put in the ark, where the Lord himself sat enthroned as divine witness.⁶⁷

Having received the tablets, Moses now goes down the mountain to the people. What he is about to find is one of the most tragic scenes in the entire book.

The story now plunges into ruin. By worshipping the golden calf, the Israelites break the covenant, a reality Moses mirrors by smashing the covenant tablets (32:19). But he also sets out to restore the covenant relationship, central to which will be four acts of intercession on the Israelites’ behalf. And while Moses’s prayers are effective, the ultimate reason the covenant is restored is that the Lord is “abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness . . . forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin” (34:6–7). His merciful and faithful love is what enables covenant relationship between him and a sinful people to continue.

The tabernacle’s description over the last six chapters gives us hope that the Lord might soon move in to dwell among his people. These hopes are now shattered as the people abandon the covenant by making and worshipping a golden calf.

The people conclude that Moses might not return, which seems to fuel their fears and insecurity about the future (32:1). Moses was their connection to God; with him gone, they needed another connection. In keeping with their ancient Near Eastern culture, an idol was the most natural way to do this, so they “gathered” around Aaron—the language elsewhere has a menacing tone (Num 16:3, 42)—and demanded he make them a god.⁶⁸

Collecting golden jewelry from them, Aaron—who had been left in charge (24:14)—fashions a “calf,” which can refer to a very young animal but also to a three-year-old animal (32:2–4; cf. Gen 15:9) and thus a young bull. This is no surprise since bull idols were used in Egyptian and Canaanite worship. Instead of being a light to the nations, the Israelites are imitating them in their idolatrous worship and go so far as to attribute the Lord’s salvation to the newly erected idol (32:4). This is both blasphemy and treason.

When Aaron says that the next day will be a feast “to the Lord” (32:5), he could be saying, “Consider this bull an image of the Lord and so stay faithful to him.” But that would be like telling a man to be faithful to his wife by considering another woman to be his wife; it doesn’t work. As the Lord will make clear, the Israelites are worshipping the calf, not him (32:8). They have now broken the first and second commandments of the covenant (20:3, 4–5), thus shattering it to pieces. And they have done so joyfully, with drink-fueled singing and dancing so wild it sounds like the sounds of war (32:6, 17–18).

In tragic irony, the Lord had just finished giving Moses the stone tablets written with the covenant, the very covenant Israel has just broken. He commands Moses to go back down to the camp. His language is ominous. In Exodus, the Lord normally describes Israel as “my people” (3:7, 10; 5:1; etc.), but here he tells Moses, “Your people . . . have corrupted themselves” (32:7, emphasis mine). He seems to imply the covenant relationship is not simply damaged but finished.

Since the Israelites are so unteachable and insistent on their sinful ways (“stiff-necked”), the Lord’s hot wrath is going to consume them like fire, and the Lord will start over with his patriarchal promises, this time with Abraham’s descendant Moses (compare 32:10 with Gen 12:2). But in making the threat he also invites Moses to intercede. Note that his words “Now therefore let me alone” (32:10) would be unnecessary if the Lord had determined that complete destruction would certainly come. Just as the Lord let Abraham know of coming judgment so Abraham could plead on Sodom’s behalf (Gen 18:16–33), he lets Moses know of coming judgment so Moses could plead on Israel’s behalf,⁶⁹ which is exactly what Moses does.

In these chapters, this is the first of four times that Moses will intercede on the Israelites’ behalf (a picture of the far greater work of intercession that Jesus does on our behalf, Heb 7:25). At no point does he appeal to the people’s righteousness; there is nothing in that regard to appeal to. Rather, he begins by stating the negative consequences of wiping Israel out: it would undo the Lord’s mighty redemption he had just accomplished, and the Egyptians would view the Lord to be like any other petty and vindictive god (Exod 32:11–12). Moses finishes by reminding the Lord of his promises to the patriarchs that he had sworn to carry out (32:13; see Gen 22:16; Heb 6:13). Along the way, he threads his prayers with the reminder “These are not simply my people (32:7), but your people (32:11, 12, emphasis mine),” and therefore the natural objects of the Lord’s mercy.

The Lord heeds Moses’s prayer and relents from his threat to destroy them utterly (32:14). (As Proverbs reminds us, “The Lord hears the prayer of the righteous” [15:29; see also Jas 5:16–18].) But he has not promised to turn from all discipline or judgment, a point the story returns to shortly.

Moses now goes down the mountain to see things for himself (32:15a). We are told in some detail about the covenant’s two stone tablets, with an emphasis on God himself being their craftsman and the one who wrote on them (32:15b–16). This means they are not something one would destroy lightly (see 32:19b).

Joshua, who had gone up the mountain with Moses (24:13), now reenters the story to comment that the noise from the camp is so loud it must be a sign of war (32:17)! Moses replies that it is not war but singing—loud, raucous revelry (32:18).

When the camp comes into view and Moses sees the people in their wild worship and partying, he responds exactly as the Lord did earlier: “his anger burned hot” (32:19a; compare 32:10). Realizing that the people have broken the covenant, Moses graphically portrays the same by shattering the covenant tablets (32:19b). To destroy God’s own handiwork (see 32:15–16) underscores how serious the Israelites’ rebellion is. He then destroys the golden calf (cf. 2Kgs 23:15), pulverizing it and throwing it into Israel’s drinking water (32:20). This was not a delivering god; it was a powerless figurine.

Moses now turns his attention to Aaron. Since Moses had left Aaron in charge (24:14), he was ultimately responsible, and Moses demands an explanation (32:21). Aaron’s description of the people’s part in this “great sin” is full and complete (32:22–23). His description of his own part avoids all responsibility and ends in absurdity (32:24). “Many of us can resonate with Aaron’s evasiveness and selective telling. It is far easier to describe the sin of others in detail than even to admit our own.”⁷⁰

Seeing that the people had “broken loose” from all normal moral restraint—Aaron’s responsibility for this is again emphasized (32:25)—Moses takes bold action. Standing at one end of the camp, he gives the people an opportunity to take a stand for the Lord (32:26a). Only the tribe of Levi heeds the call, and Moses passes on the Lord’s command for them to execute judgment on the idolatrous nation and not to spare even family or friends (32:26b–27). The Levites obey and execute three thousand people (32:28). (These were presumably those leading the rebellion or at its center since the nation as a whole—which had many more thousands of people—had been involved in the idolatry.) It was costly obedience on the Levites’ part, who had to choose between loyalty to God and loyalty to family and friends (32:29), a choice Jesus also said his followers would need to make (see Matt 10:37; Luke 14:26). But their obedience also resulted in their tribe being set apart for special service to God and experiencing his blessing (32:29; cf. Deut 33:8–9). (For treasonous crimes as capital offences, see at 21:12–17.)

While the Lord made clear he would not annihilate the entire people (32:14), and while an initial act of judgment has been carried out (32:28), questions remained: Were further judgments coming? And was there any chance the Lord would grant covenant promises to a people who had broken the covenant?

Moses therefore goes back up the mountain to intercede for a second time on Israel’s behalf. He hopes somehow to atone for their sin but is unsure whether he can (“Perhaps I can make atonement for your sin,” 32:30, emphasis mine). He confesses the people’s sin openly and honestly, pleads for forgiveness, and then underscores his prayer by saying that if the Lord will not forgive, he would rather be blotted out of “the book” the Lord has written, that is, that the life story God was writing for him would come to an end (see Ps 139:16). It is not a prayer to die instead of the people; it is a prayer to die with the people, so great is his love for them.⁷¹

The Lord responds in three ways. First, despite Moses’s noble request, the Lord refuses to slay him with the guilty (32:33). Second, he assures Moses that the people will inherit the Promised Land (32:34a). Third, he affirms that discipline for sin is not yet finished (32:34b).

The chapter finishes by stating that at some point—it seems to jump forward in time here (see at 33:1–3)—the Lord indeed brought fatal judgment on more of the people (cf. Num 14:37; 16:48–49). It also implies that their insistence on having an idol makes them equally (if not more) responsible for this judgment: “because they made the calf, the one that Aaron made” (32:35, emphasis mine).

Verses 1–2 now flash back to 32:34a, filling out the Lord’s words in detail and reaffirming the promises made to Israel’s forefathers (and the more recent promises made in 23:20–23 for angelic guidance and help). Verse 3 then introduces devastating news from the Lord: “I will not go up among you.” In other words, “No need for a tabernacle. No need to do everything laid out in chapters 25–31. I won’t dwell among you. Your very posture—stiff-necked—is rebellious, and rebels are first to experience my judgment.”

Given that a main reason for the Lord delivering Israel was so that he could live in their midst (29:45–46), and given how much the people longed for a visible sign of God in their midst (32:1), the Lord’s announcement in v. 3 is a worst-case scenario. The people rightly mourn their sin and its consequences and, in obedience to God’s commands, strip off their ornaments. Mourning was often indicated by changing one’s visible appearance (cf. Lev 10:6). Taking off jewelry was especially appropriate here since the golden calf was made from such things.

In the midst of this mourning there is also a glimmer of hope in the Lord’s words “that I may know what to do with you” (33:5). These words are not a guarantee that all will be well, but they open up the possibility that God might respond to Israel’s repentance positively.

Moses used to pitch a tent “outside the camp” (33:7). He would meet with the Lord there, saving him from having to go up the mountain each time. Moses therefore called it “the tent of meeting.” The same name was also given to the tabernacle, since it would have the same function (29:42–43), though it would be far more ornate and at the camp’s center (Num 2:2), not “far off from the camp” (Exod 33:7), as this one had to be due to the people’s rebellion and sin.

Whenever Moses met there with the Lord, the cloud of glory would descend, and the Israelites would worship the Lord from the entrance of their own tents. The repentance of chapter 32 is now matched by proper worship in chapter 33. This is a people returning to the Lord.

At the tent, “the Lord used to speak to Moses face to face,” a figure of speech expressing direct and personal communication, the way a person “speaks to his friend” (33:11; cf. Num 12:6–8; Exod 33:20). Here is a man very close to God and thus well suited to pray further on Israel’s behalf. As for Joshua, he remained at the tent when Moses returned to the camp (33:11). Why? We are not told, but the fact that Moses’s future successor wants to stay at the tent where God makes his presence known is a positive sign.

Returning to the dialogue in 33:1–6, where the Lord had told Israel, “I will not go up among you” (33:3), Moses intercedes a third time, asking for the Lord’s presence to go with the people (33:12–13). His argument may be paraphrased, “You have said that I have a special relationship with you and yet you have not let me know who will go with me. Please let me know your ways among us—you, not someone else—so I can know you even more, which is a sure sign of your favor. And please remember your promises to Israel, your people.”

The Lord responds favorably: he will give them rest from their enemies in the Promised Land, as he had just said (33:1–3a), and he himself will go with them (33:14).

Wanting to be sure, Moses repeats his request (33:15–16), something not uncommon in Israel’s day when confirming an important promise (cf. Joshua 24:14–22). He emphasizes that this promise is for Israel as much as for him (note the double use of “I and your people”) and that it is God’s presence that makes Israel special. The Israelites can carry out their priestly role among the nations only if God is with them (compare Exod 19:5–6 with 33:16).

The Lord reaffirms that he will go up in Israel’s midst because of the special relationship and favor Moses has with him (33:17). How much more confidence of God’s favor can we have if we have put our trust in the mediating work of Jesus, God’s own Son, the one with whom he is well pleased (Matt 3:17; Heb 7:25)!

As the Lord’s response in 33:20 makes clear, Moses is asking in 33:18 to see a full manifestation of God’s glory, one that is not veiled in a cloud as in previous instances (16:10; 24:16–17). In context, Moses’s motivation is certainly a desire for clear proof the Lord is with him. But one also senses a hunger here to know God more deeply and fully. “Moses has seen more of God’s power, and had more direct communication with God, than any human being to this point in history. But like those who take a first bite of the most delicious meal they’ve ever tasted, he wants to keep eating. He’s hungry for more.”⁷²

The Lord partially agrees to Moses’s request. He will let Moses see a very special physical manifestation of his goodness and hear the Lord describe his character (33:19a), especially that he is full of grace and mercy above all else (33:19b).

But it will be impossible for Moses to see God in all his fullness since that would be lethal (33:20). “The idea might be that if merely earthly circumstances can so overwhelm a person’s senses that they lose consciousness, then the sight of the heavenly Lord in his glory can so overwhelm a person’s senses that they lose life itself. It is like a power surge of glory that fatally overwhelms and short-circuits our mortal capacities.”⁷³ So how will the prayer be answered?

God now describes himself in very human terms to explain. In short, when Moses goes back up the mountain (see 34:2), the Lord will put Moses in a hole in the rock and obscure his vision so that Moses does not see the Lord’s face (that is, the fullness of his glory), but only his back (that is, a partial glimpse of his glory). And even that will be overwhelming enough that Moses will fling himself to the ground in humble and awestruck worship (34:8; cf. Rev 1:12–17).

Moses is to prepare for this meeting much the same way as in chapter 19, just before the Lord gave the covenant tablets the first time: he is to “be ready” in terms of ritual purity (34:2; see 19:10–11, 14–15), and the people and their animals are to stay off the mountain due to its holy nature (34:3; see 19:12–23). This gives us the sense that just as the covenant was given then (chs. 20–23), it will be given again now. Indeed, the Lord’s command to bring up two new tablets so he could rewrite the covenant on them (34:1) lets Moses know that the Lord desires to renew the covenant, and this gives Moses confidence to pray boldly that this would be the case (34:9).

Moses wastes no time in obeying the Lord’s commands. Early the next morning he heads up the mountain with the stone tablets.

The Lord now carries out what he promised in 33:19–23: giving Moses a glimpse of his glory and proclaiming his name, that is, his character. “Merciful and gracious” refer to his kindness in showing favor to sinners who deserve punishment or who are already experiencing it. “Slow to anger” and “abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness” refer to his patience towards his sinful people and his naturally overflowing loving faithfulness. “Keeping steadfast love” and “forgiving iniquity” refer to the fact he maintains faithful love to his sinful people and does so because he forgives their sins. But such mercy and forgiveness must not be taken for granted, for he “will by no means clear the guilty, visiting the iniquity of the fathers on the children . . . to the third and the fourth generation” (34:7). As a loving father he will forgive quickly and lavishly, but this does not mean an absence of discipline (cf. Heb 12:5–11), a discipline that can have consequences for the three or four generations living in the sinner’s household (see further at 20:5). And because this is so, avoid sin at whatever cost!

What should not be missed in the above is that the Lord first describes his faithful love towards sinners before turning to his punishment for their sin. Moreover, he uses three pairs of characteristics to describe his merciful love and only one to describe his judgment. And while he speaks of punishment for “three or four generations,” he speaks of keeping “steadfast love for thousands.” He is not first and foremost a God of discipline; he is first and foremost a God of mercy and grace who patiently and faithfully extends forgiveness and love to sinful people. And for that he is to be greatly praised!

As a final note, there are many parallels between these verses and the story surrounding them and John’s description of Jesus in John 1:14–18. Both places speak of glory (John 1:14; Exod 33:18–22), God or Jesus dwelling among us (John 1:14; Exod 33:14), grace and truth (John 1:14; Exod 33:19; 34:6),⁷⁴ law coming through Moses (John 1:17; Exod 34:1, 10–28), and no person seeing God (John 1:18; Exod 33:20). In making the parallels, John also draws a contrast. The contrast is not that we see grace and truth now but do not see it in the Old Testament; the contrast is that while God showed his grace and truth in the Old Testament (after all, what nation was shown such grace as Israel in receiving God’s truth through his law?), these things have shown up in a deeper and more profound way in Jesus! In Exodus, Moses received a description of God’s character; in Jesus, we have received God’s character in human flesh! And he, more than anyone else, has made known to us exactly who God is because he is the only one who has seen God as he is and knows him as intimately as he can be known. To know him is to know the Father (John 14:9), and this is the only way the Father can be known (John 14:6).

Moses responds to God exactly as anyone should: with immediate, humble, and reverent worship.

In this posture of worship, Moses prays now for a fourth time on Israel’s behalf. In view of the Lord’s positive response to Moses’s request to see his glory (33:19–23), the Lord saying he would rewrite the words of the first covenant (34:1), and the Lord’s declaration that he keeps steadfast love for thousands and forgives iniquity and sin (34:7), Moses boldly prays for Israel to experience the Lord’s forgiveness in full and to have him go in their midst as he had originally promised.

The Lord answers this prayer positively. He begins by stating that he is renewing the covenant that Israel broke (34:10). Indeed, he will show they are his special people by doing marvels among them, a likely reference to the miracles he will do in the coming conquest (Josh 3:5; 6:20; 10:12–13; etc.).

Having stated that he will renew the covenant, the Lord then gives a selection of representative covenant commands (34:11–26). (These commands more or less repeat material from 13:2, 11–16, and 23:12–33. See there for details.) Given that the Israelites broke the first covenant through false worship, the Lord focuses here on commands about avoiding false worship (34:11–17) and practicing true worship (34:18–26). At the heart of the covenant with the Lord is exclusive loyalty and love towards him.

The covenant is then written again (34:27–28). In v. 27, the Lord commands Moses to write down “these words,” which would have included the commands just given in 34:11–26 but perhaps also all of 20:22–23:33 since they, too, belonged to the covenant. In v. 28, the Lord himself again writes the Ten Commandments of 20:2–17 (compare 34:1). This takes place over “forty days and nights” (see n. 37). By fasting during this time, Moses expresses how seriously he is seeking the Lord on Israel’s behalf (see Judg 20:26–27; Dan 9:3). The Gospel writers describe Jesus also as fasting forty days and nights in the wilderness (Matt 4:2; Mark 1:13; Luke 4:2). Like Moses, he was a giver of God’s laws, though far greater than Moses, since Moses was simply God’s servant, whereas Jesus was God’s very son (Heb 3:1–6).

Moses now comes down the mountain with the covenant tablets but is unaware that the skin of his face is shining due to his speaking with God (34:29). The reason this happens now and not the first time he received the covenant tablets can be explained by the greater exposure he had to God’s glory (33:18–34:7), which now shines from his face like rays of light and confirms him as the person that the Lord speaks with face to face. The leaders and people are understandably terrified at the sight, but Moses is eventually able to convince them to come near so he can pass on God’s commands (34:30–32).

From that point forward, whenever he went to speak with God in person, he kept his face unveiled and then left it unveiled when he passed on God’s words to the Israelites, who would be able to see the glory and know he was God’s authoritative spokesman (34:33–35). At all other times he would veil his face, perhaps because it was too difficult for the Israelites to interact with him in everyday contexts when seeing such an awesome sight.

The New Testament looks back on this passage to affirm that the glory of God is now seen in the face of Jesus (Matt 17:1–8; 2Cor 4:6). It also affirms that the glory of the old covenant is far surpassed by the glory of the new covenant (2Cor 3), a glory that followers of Jesus reflect as they are transformed by his Spirit into his likeness.

All is now in place to carry out what we have been waiting for since the Lord began to give tabernacle instructions in chapter 25: the making and setting up of the tabernacle so the Lord can dwell in his people’s midst. As he has already made clear, “I am the Lord their God, who brought them out of the land of Egypt that I might dwell among them” (29:45, emphasis mine). By the time the book finishes, this will indeed have taken place (40:34–38).

Throughout these chapters there will be a strong emphasis on Moses and the Israelites doing things as “the Lord had commanded Moses” (38:22; 39:1, 5, 7, 42; etc.). See further comments at 36:8–39:43.

In chapter 34, we read that Moses passed on the Lord’s commands (v. 32). We will now read in detail what he said at that point.

The story of the golden calf (32:1–34:35) was preceded by commands to keep the Sabbath (31:12–17). Returning to those commands now (35:2–3) is a way to resume the story where it left off before the Israelites’ disobedience. In other words, their rebellion is completely forgiven, and the Lord can proceed with plans to come and dwell in his people’s midst. What is more, repeating the command to keep the Sabbath, which is the covenant sign, emphasizes the importance of faithfulness to that covenant. In short, a golden calf incident should never happen again! Receiving forgiveness should not lead us to take advantage of God’s grace but to present our “bodies as a living sacrifice, holy and acceptable to God, which is [our] spiritual worship” (Rom 12:1).

For the command itself, see at 31:12–17. Added here is the prohibition against kindling a fire in one’s dwelling (35:3), which would have especially ensured that women and servants were spared from food preparation activities like baking bread (compare 16:23).

The text now returns to the matter of building the tabernacle. The first step would be to collect the materials necessary to build it.

To begin, the needed contributions are named. For details, see at 25:1–9.

Next, the text calls for skillful artisans to come (35:10; see details at 31:1–6) and describes the various things they will make, from the tabernacle and its equipment (35:11–16) to the courtyard surrounding it (35:17–18) to the garments of the priests serving at it (35:19). For details, see relevant discussion in chapters 25–28, 30.

The people depart (35:20), collect the items necessary, and return in full force (35:21–29). The text emphasizes the people brought these gifts willingly (35:21–22, 26, 29). Having repented of giving precious items to make an idolatrous golden calf, they now joyfully bring precious items to make a tabernacle so the true God can dwell in their midst. The text also notes the widespread nature of the giving: men and women were equally involved (35:22, 29), with some giving possessions and others giving of their time and talents (35:25–26). In short, the Israelites gave cheerfully, broadly, and so generously that they eventually had to be commanded not to bring anything else since they had brought more than enough (36:3–7)! Such cheerful and generous giving is the natural and proper response of those who have been forgiven so much and shown such merciful love (cf. Luke 7:36–50).

Moses introduces Bezalel and Oholiab, who would lead the effort to transform the contributions into the tabernacle. Moses emphasizes that they have been gifted by God to be the lead artisans and to apprentice other divinely gifted artisans in the necessary work, and that all such work must be done in exact accordance with the Lord’s commands. See further at 31:1–11.

Moses now passes on the contributions to the artisans. The voluntary nature of the contributions is again emphasized, whether of those volunteering their labor (36:2) or those volunteering their goods (36:3). See further comments at 35:20–29.

The artisans now begin to make the tabernacle. Even though its making is described piece by piece, much of the work is being done simultaneously (compare 36:4).

As the following notes show, there is a significant amount of repetition between this section, which describes the making of the tabernacle components, and chapters 25–31, which contain the commands to make the tabernacle components. Similar repetition may be found elsewhere in the Bible when an important point is being emphasized (compare Gen 24:12–27 with 24:34–48; see also Num 7). Here, the repetition emphasizes that the Israelites are following God’s commands to the letter when it comes to his place of worship. These are no longer the calf-making Israelites who disobey him when it comes to worship (Exod 32), but his repentant and obedient people who desire to worship him exactly as he commands. In this way, Exodus 32–39 makes clear that not all ways of worship lead to the same place. There are wrong ways, which God condemns, and a correct way, which he blesses, reveals to us in his Word, and which today begins with knowing him through Christ (John 14:6).

See at 26:1–14.

See at 26:15–30.

See at 26:31–35.

See at 26:36–37.

See at 25:10–22.

See at 25:23–30.

See at 25:31–40.

See at 30:1–10 (esp. 30:1–5).

See at 30:22–38.

See at 27:1–8.

See at 30:17–21.

See at 27:9–19.

At Moses’s command, a careful record of the tabernacle contributions was kept (38:21a). This was done by the Levites who would be under the direction of Aaron’s son, Ithamar, and who were responsible for transporting the tabernacle’s fabrics and framework (38:21b; cf. Num 3:36–37; 4:28, 33). The text also mentions Bezalel and Oholiab, who would oversee the use of the materials. See further at 31:1–6a.

The text focuses on the precious metals (38:24–31). The reason is not stated. We do know of Egyptians weighing metals before giving them to the metalworkers, so it is not unusual the Israelites would do the same.⁷⁵ In terms of calculating modern equivalents for the quantities, most authorities assume a shekel was around .4 oz (11.3 g) and a talent around 75 pounds (34 kg). This means the gold weighed roughly 2,193 pounds (995 kg), the silver 7,544 pounds (3,422 kg), and the bronze 5,310 pounds (2,409 kg). In short, there was ample provision for making the tabernacle components (compare 36:2–7). The silver is specified as coming from “everyone who was listed in the records” (38:26), for which see at 30:11–16.

It has been observed that the phrase “as the Lord had commanded Moses” occurs seven times in this section (39:1, 5, 7, 21, 26, 29, 30).⁷⁶ And since the number seven represented fullness (see Gen 4:15; Lev 4:6), the point is clear: the obedience was thorough and complete. (See the same again in Exod 40:17–32.)

For 39:1–7, see at 28:5–14.

For 39:8–21, see at 28:15–30.

For 39:22–26, see at 28:31–35.

For 39:27–29, see at 28:39, 40, 42–43.

For 39:30–31, see at 28:36–38.

The tabernacle items are now finished and brought to Moses. They are listed in verses 33–41 (compare the similar list at 35:10–19). The list is framed by three statements repeating that all the work was done “according to all that the Lord had commanded Moses” (39:32, 42–43), emphasizing for generations to come the importance of obedience, especially when it comes to worshipping God. Moses responds by praying for God’s favor on his obedient people (39:43; see Num 6:23–27 for the type of prayer he might have prayed). This is a prayer the Lord would be happy to answer. After all, “the Lord delights to bless his obedient children. That is a good father’s natural response—and the Lord is the very best father there is.”⁷⁷

Now that the tabernacle components have been made, the Lord commands that it be set up “on the first day of the first month . . . in the second year” (40:2, 17), that is, at the very beginning of the second year after the Israelites’ deliverance from Egypt. This timing is especially meaningful. When the Lord led Israel out of Egypt so that he could eventually dwell in their midst (29:46), he declared the month of their redemption to be the new beginning of their year (see at 12:1–2). Now, almost one year later, Israel is to set up the tabernacle on the first day of that same month, a moving reminder that God’s purpose in redemption has been accomplished.

The setup of the tabernacle is described briefly here and with more detail in verses 16–33. The order of setup flows naturally, from setting up the tent itself (40:2b), to moving the furniture into it (40:3–5), to setting up the surrounding courtyard (40:6–8).

Because of the Lord’s holiness, two further steps were necessary for the tabernacle to function properly. First, it had to be made holy by means of the anointing oil (40:9–11). Second, the priests who would serve as the Lord’s royal servants had to likewise be holy so they could enter it and handle its holy objects (40:12–15). In short, “a holy king needed a holy dwelling place and holy servants to work within it.”⁷⁸ See further details at 29:1–9; 30:22–30.

The tabernacle is now set up at the time the Lord indicated (40:17; see at 40:1–8). Moses is described as the main actor, not because he did this single-handedly, but because he was responsible for it being done (cf. 1Kgs 6:1–2).

The text emphasizes that the Lord’s commands were perfectly obeyed. The entire section is introduced by the statement, “according to all that the Lord commanded [Moses], so he did” (40:16). This is followed by the description of the setting up (40:17–33), which mentions seven times that everything was done “as the Lord has commanded Moses” (40:19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 29, 30), in this way underscoring that the obedience was thorough and complete (see at 39:1–31).

The setting up follows the order outlined in 40:1–8 and often summarizes the fuller descriptions from earlier chapters. The description is divided into eight sections:

1. For 40:18, see at 26:15–30, 32; for 40:19, see at 26:1–14.
2. For 40:20–21, see at 25:10–22; at 26:31–35.
3. For 40:22–23, see at 25:23–30; at 26:31–35.
4. For 40:24–25, see at 25:31–40; at 26:31–35.
5. For 40:26–27, see at 26:31–35; at 30:1–10, 34–38.
6. For 40:28–29, see at 26:36–37; at 29:36–42.
7. For 40:30–32, see at 30:17–21.
8. For 40:33, see at 27:9–19.

The tabernacle anointing and the priestly ordination commanded in 40:9–15 are to take place at the same time. These cannot take place on the same day the tabernacle is built because the ordination ceremony will last for seven days (Lev 8:33). We therefore do not read of their fulfillment until Leviticus 8, which follows seven chapters outlining the sacrificial system (Lev 1–7). This makes sense from a literary perspective, as Leviticus 1–7 provides important information for many of the sacrifices that will be performed during the priests’ ordination in Leviticus 8.

But we do not have to wait until then to see God move into action. He comes down in his cloud of glory and moves into the tabernacle the moment it is set up! “It’s as if God could not wait to be where he had wanted to be all along—in the midst of his people.”⁷⁹ As noted at 24:15–18, the cloud of glory was an unmistakable sign of God’s powerful presence. (John will use the image of a glory-filled tabernacle to describe the ultimate sign of God’s presence: Jesus, as God in the flesh, come to dwell among us [John 1:14].) In this case, the glory-cloud prevented Moses from even entering the tent (40:34–35). As he did in Exodus 24:16, he will show the Lord proper reverence by waiting until he is summoned (see Lev 1:1).

In the meantime, the book concludes by telling us two of the cloud’s purposes. First, it was how the Lord would guide Israel in their journeys to the Promised Land (40:36–37). Second, its presence was a continual reminder and guarantee that the Lord was with them (40:38). The cloud would not remain behind at Mt. Sinai when Israel left; it would move with them, transforming the tabernacle into a “portable Mt. Sinai” in their midst and assuring them of the promise he gives to all his children: “I will never leave you nor forsake you” (Heb 13:5; see Deut 31:6; Matt 28:20).

And so the book ends with an implicit call and promise. The call is for the Israelites to follow the Lord all the way to the Promised Land. This is a call they must obey because he is the King of kings. And it is a call they can obey because of his promise to be with them all along the way. His protective and loving presence make obedient trust possible. The same call and promise exist for the believer today. Jesus commands his children, “Follow me” (Matt 4:19). This is a call we must obey because he is Lord. And it is a call we can obey because that same Lord gives us a promise: “I am with you always, to the end of the age” (Matt 28:20). His protective and loving presence give us confidence and hope to obey boldly and whole-heartedly. So let us “[look] to Jesus, the founder and perfecter of our faith” (Heb 12:2), as we follow him all the way to the Lord’s Promised Land of rest.

Sklar, Jay. “Exodus,” in the ESV Expository Commentary, Vol. 1. Edited by James M. Hamilton Jr., Iain M. Duguid, and Jay Sklar. Wheaton: Crossway, forthcoming.

Wright, Christopher J. H. Exodus. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2021.

1. For a full discussion, see J.H. Walton, “Exodus, Date of,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 258–72.

2. Jay Sklar, “Exodus,” in the ESV Expository Commentary, vol. I, eds. James M. Hamilton Jr., Iain M. Duguid, and Jay Sklar (Wheaton: Crossway, forthcoming), at 19:3–6.

3. Though not identical, this outline overlaps considerably with that of my fuller commentary (see n. 4).

4. I wrote this commentary at the same time as a longer one (Sklar, “Exodus”; see n. 2). For each pericope, my process was to write the longer commentary first. Once finished, I would put it aside, look at the text afresh, and write this commentary. This process has meant there is natural overlap between the two, which I note here but will not continue to note at every point of overlap in the commentary itself.

5. John D. Currid, A Study Commentary on Exodus, vol. 1 (Auburn, MA: Evangelical Press, 2000), 52

6. Bruce Wells, “Exodus,” in Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary, vol. 1 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009), 172.

7. “Many biblical characters have more than two names, e.g., Jacob/Israel, Esau/Edom, Hoshea/Joshua” (Sklar, “Exodus,” at 3:1–3).

8. For a fuller defense of this position, see Sklar, “Exodus,” at 3:13–15.

9. Sklar, “Exodus,” at 4:21–23. See V. H. Matthews, “Family Relationships,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 293.

10. Exodus 6:3 is perhaps best translated, “And by my name the Lord [=Yahweh], did I not make myself known to them?” (See T. Desmond Alexander, Exodus, Apollos Old Testament Commentary, 2 [Downers Grover: InterVarsity Press, 2017], 116–17; Sklar, “Exodus,” at 6:1–8. Note how much more smoothly v. 3 now connects with the “also” that begins v. 4.) As such, this verse affirms the patriarchs worshipped God by the name Yahweh.

11. Sklar, “Exodus,” at 6:13–27.

12. “Usual guesses are that the Israelites would not sacrifice according to Egyptian religious regulations or would sacrifice animals considered sacred by the Egyptians (or both), though it may also be noted that some cultural views are simply inherited, with new generations simply assuming, ‘That’s just the way it is’” (Sklar, “Exodus,” at 8:25–27).

13. The word “all” in 9:6 is hyperbole (note that livestock are mentioned three verses later in 9:9); its use emphasizes how widespread the plague was.

14. The phrase “all my plagues” could mean this plague will involve many judgments (hail, lightening, thunder) or that the Lord is preparing to send “all my remaining plagues” in a final round of judgments. See further in Sklar, “Exodus,” at 9:13–14.

15. Wells, “Exodus,” 200.

16. Pharaoh later summons Moses (12:31), but Moses never again initiates an approach to Pharaoh.

17. This approach to the relationship between vv. 1–3 and 4–8 is common among commentators since it is natural to see the warning of vv. 4–8 as a continuation of the conversation in 10:24–29.

18. Sklar, “Exodus,” at 4:21–23. See there for fuller discussion.

19. Ibid., at 12:34–36.

20. See discussion in ibid., at 12:37–42.

21. Mercifully, females were not circumcised in Israel as happens today in some nations, at great risk of harm to the females. (See the report by the United Nations Children’s Fund, Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A statistical overview and exploration of the dynamics of change [New York: UNICEF, 2013]: 1–194 [http://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/FGMC_Lo_res_Final_26.pdf]. See also the discussion in Samuel Waje Kunyihop, African Christian Ethics, [Grand Rapids, MI: Hippo Books, 2008], 293–302. He concludes, “Female circumcision must…be condemned as unbiblical and unethical” [ibid., 298].) Israelites females were considered covenant members by virtue of belonging to covenant families whose males had been circumcised.

22. Sklar, “Exodus,” at 15:1–19.

23. Jay Sklar, Leviticus: A Discourse Analysis of the Hebrew Bible, Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2023), 479 (hereafter, Leviticus [ZECOT]).

24. And then later apparently in the ark, along with Aaron’s staff (Heb 9:4; see Num 17:10).

25. Sklar, “Exodus,” at 17:15.

26. Ibid., at 19:3–6.

27. Ibid.

28. Sklar, Leviticus (ZECOT), 10, adapting this description from Timothy J. Keller, Preaching: Communicating Faith in an Age of Skepticism (New York: Viking, 2015), 104.

29. Sklar, “Exodus,” at 20:16.

30. Ibid., at 21:20–21.

31. Ibid., at 21:26–27.

32. Jay Sklar, Additional Notes on Leviticus: A Complement to Sklar’s Leviticus Commentary in the Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the Old Testament Series (St. Louis, MO: Gleanings, 2023), at 19:20.

33. Sklar, “Exodus,” at 22:18–20.

34. Sklar, Leviticus (ZECOT), 610.

35. See further Jay Sklar, Leviticus: An Introduction and Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentary, vol. 3 (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2014), 222–23 (hereafter, Leviticus [TOTC]).

36. Sklar, “Exodus,” at 23:1–3.

37. As for the forty days and nights, “forty” is possibly used at times to express “many, a lot of,” which could explain why this exact number occurs so often (Judg 3:11; 5:31; 8:28; 13:1; 1 Sam 4:18). Either way, it was long enough for the Israelites to wonder what had happened to him (32:1).

38. Sklar, “Exodus,” at Introduction to 24:12–34:18. For helpful illustrations, search online for “ESV pictures of the tabernacle” or “ESV pictures of the altar of incense”, etc.

39. Richard E. Averbeck, “Tabernacle,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 815.

40. See discussion in William H.C. Propp, Exodus 19 – 40: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, Anchor Bible, vol. 2A (New York: Doubleday, 2006), 411–12.

41. Sklar, “Exodus,” at 27:1–8. The quote is from Jay Sklar, Numbers, The Story of God Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, forthcoming), at 7:10–88.

42. Ibid., at 28:15–30.

43. George Bush, Commentary on Exodus (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 1993 [orig. pub. 1843]), 463; U. Cassuto, A Commentary on the Book of Exodus, trans. Israel Abrahams (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1967), 383; Douglas K. Stuart, Exodus, New American Commentary, vol. 2 (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2006), 614.

44. Sklar, “Exodus,” at Response section of Exodus 28–29.

45. See C.F. Keil, Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament: Exodus, vol. 2: The Pentateuch, trans. James Martin (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988 [orig. pub. 1864]), 205.

46. Not surprisingly, Exodus 29 and Leviticus 8 overlap significantly. My comments on Exodus 29 are in many instances a lightly edited version of my comments on Leviticus 8 (see Sklar, Leviticus [TOTC], 141–49).

47. Sklar, “Exodus,” at 28:41.

48. See discussion in Sklar, Leviticus (TOTC), 111.

49. Sklar, “Exodus,” at 29:10–14.

50. Sklar, Leviticus (ZECOT), 94.

51. “The sequence in Leviticus 8 differs at this point. It may be that Exodus 29 is arranged topically (keeping all the anointing actions together) whereas Leviticus 8 gives the actual temporal order” (Sklar, “Exodus,” at 29:19–21).

52. Sklar, Leviticus (ZECOT), 268.

53. Sklar, “Exodus,” at 29:22–25.

54. Most commentators understand 29:36 to start a new section regarding the altar. The Hebrew supports this since its normal verbal sequence is interrupted here.

55. See at 27:20–21.

56. Sklar, Numbers, at 28:3–8.

57. Ibid.

58. Sklar, Leviticus (ZECOT), 727.

59. Sklar, “Exodus,” at 29:43–46.

60. For Heb 9: 4, see Gareth Lee Cockerill, The Epistle to the Hebrews, New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2012), 376–77, who follows many others in understanding that Heb 9:4 describes the Most Holy Place as “having” the altar (see ESV), meaning the incense altar goes with the Most Holy Place in a special way and not that the incense altar is “in” the Most Holy Place. (Note how Exod 30:6 similarly mentions altar and ark together, putting the two in relationship to one another.) See also 1 Kgs 6:22b in ESV or NIV.

61. See Sklar, Leviticus (TOTC), 210–12.

62. For atonement as an act of cleansing, see ibid., 51. Compare 1 John 1:9 and see also n. 63.

63. For atonement as an act of ransom, see ibid., 50–51. Compare Mark 10:45.

64. See discussion in Propp, Exodus 19–40, 483.

65. The Hebrew word is ḥokmāh, which is generally translated as “wisdom” and in this context refers to skill or ability.

66. Sklar, “Exodus,” at 31:12–17.

67. See further discussion in Nahum M. Sarna, Exodus, The JPS Torah Commentary (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1991), 108.

68. Or “gods”; the Hebrew word can represent a singular or a plural, and English versions are divided on how to translate it (as also in vv. 4, 8). Since a single calf was made, I favor the singular.

69. Christopher J. H. Wright, Exodus, The Story of God Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2021), 552–53.

70. Sklar, “Exodus,” at 32:24.

71. See also Wright, Exodus, 559.

72. Sklar, “Exodus,” at 33:18.

73. Sklar, Leviticus (ZECOT), 431. See also at 3:1–6.

74. The word for “truth” in John 1:14 and the Septuagint’s translation of the word “faithfulness” in Exod 34:6 are built on the same Greek root.

75. Sarna, Exodus, 231. See James B. Pritchard, The Ancient Near East in Pictures Relating to the Old Testament, second ed. with supplement (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969), no. 133.

76. Wright, Exodus, 609.

77. Sklar, “Exodus,” at 39:43.

78. Ibid., at 40:9–15.

79. Wright, Exodus, 610.

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