Ezekiel

Ezekiel highlights Israel’s unrelenting sin of rebellion and idolatry due to hardness of heart (Ezek 2:4; 3:7). They defiled themselves and God’s holy name (20:39; 39:7, 21–29; 43:1–9). This leads to Yahweh’s unrelenting anger culminating in the fall of Jerusalem. God’s presence will leave the temple, and the city will be destroyed (chs. 8–11). Jerusalem features prominently in the book.

Ezekiel predicts the siege (4:1–17) and then reports the date it begins (24:1).¹ Likewise, he prophesies the city’s fall (24:15–27) and then gives the date when Jerusalem fell (33:21–22).² The guilty condition of the people results in death; Ezekiel repeatedly portrays the death and destruction that await Israel (chs. 4–24) and foreign nations (chs. 25–32; 38–39). The nation and individuals must die. Death brings lamentation, mourning, and woe; yet out of death restored life will come. Ezekiel also highlights God’s unrelenting loyalty and love due to his compassion, which leads to Israel’s undeserved restoration culminating in the rise of a city-like structure. God’s presence will return, and the city will be restored. The city will have a new name (chs. 40–48; 48:35). God’s compassion leads to cleansing guilty people and performing heart surgery, which results in life; Ezekiel portrays life and restoration that await Israel. The nation and individuals will live (chs. 34–48); no longer will they defile his holy name. Ultimately, in both death and life, God’s holy reputation will be restored, and he will receive the glory he desires and deserves.

Ezekiel’s prophetic ministry targets those whom Nebuchadnezzar had exiled in 597 BC (2Kgs 24:10–16).³ Five years into this exile (593 BC), Ezekiel devotes half of the book to explain that further confrontation between God and his people remains unavoidable. The Babylonians would reduce the temple in Jerusalem—the object of Israel’s affection—to rubble when they lay siege to and destroy Jerusalem in 586 BC, seven years later. Their markers of identity as God’s people (the temple, his presence, the land) were crumbling before their very eyes. One expects that as a result of more predictions about the temple, death, and death-like circumstances that acknowledgement of guilt would surface. One expects that lamentation would flow and find a natural expression. However, hardened people were unable to admit guilt, much less grieve over sin and its consequences (3:4–9). Moreover, the exiles in Babylon were unable to grasp the gravity of their circumstances due to a faulty theology (12:21–28; 14:12–20; 24:21; 33:24; cf. Jer 7:14). They believed God would rescue them; indeed, they thought he was obliged to rescue them. After all, they were his people; Jerusalem was his holy dwelling; and the land was theirs due to divine promise (Gen 12:1–3). They failed to recognize, however, that their present suffering was self-imposed, not because God was unjust (Ezek 18:25, 29; 33:17–20), but because they faltered. They thought that God would save and shield them even from the consequences of their own rebellion. Death and destruction of this religious community as Ezekiel predicts did not fit their theological grid.

In the middle of this mess, God raises up Ezekiel. Through Ezekiel God tries to awaken their senses, to get them to feel, to grieve, to acknowledge their guilt, and to realize wrong theology. He does so with graphic and shocking word pictures and alarming rhetoric, among other things (cf. chs. 16, 22, 23). He utilizes stunning visuals graciously accompanied by an interpretation at times (cf. 4:1–5:5). God raises up Ezekiel to help those in exile interpret these events. Through Ezekiel, God provided a corrective lens to their inaccurate interpretation of the two Babylonian invasions on Jerusalem (606 BC and 597 BC) and the final blow yet to come (586 B.C). The situation back in Jerusalem demanded that the exiles in Babylon be anchored in reality.

It was not a time to doubt nor deny the death of the community (12:27), heed false prophets assuring the community’s preservation, nor listen to those who predicted a short exile (13:6–16). It was not a time to deny their guilt and pass blame on to others for their suffering (18:1–4; 33:10–20), question Yahweh’s justice (18:25, 29; 33:17–20), nor hope for the city’s preservation or for the safety of loved ones. It was a time to sigh, groan, mourn, and demonstrate a godly shame for their sins.⁴ “Pass through the city, through Jerusalem, and put a mark on the foreheads of the men who sigh and groan over all the abominations that are committed in it,” says the Lord to the man clothed in linen in the vision of abandonment (9:4). “But touch no one on whom is the mark” (9:6). A huge slaughter likely took place based on Ezekiel’s own mournful response, “Alas, Lord God! Will you destroy all the remnant of Israel in the outpouring of your wrath on Jerusalem?” (11:8).

A bleak picture unfolds. Hardened and theologically weak people have a misplaced hope and lack a godly sorrow. Back in Jerusalem and in Babylon people were hardened and could not mourn. They could not respond with the natural and normal sentiment associated with death and death-like circumstances. Hardness and denial led to unnatural emotional responses in the face of these realities. It led to questions showing a lack of theological awareness (21:7; 24:19).⁵ Given the inability of the people to understand and lament their sin, Ezekiel takes on the role of a mourner in the book. By eating a scroll containing lamentation, mourning, and woe, Ezekiel becomes what he eats (2:8–9; 3:14–15).⁶ Many of his actions afterward in chapters 4–24 also show that he has become a mourner.⁷ His role as a mourner is critical given their barriers to mourning. It seems to add to his multifaceted role established throughout the book. Ezekiel is portrayed as Israel’s prophet (2:5; 33:33), watchman (3:17; 33:7), sign (12:6, 11; 24:24, 27), judge (20:4; 22:2), and funeral director (19:1; 27:1–11, 26–36; 28:11; 32:1). He is Yahweh’s “son of man” (e.g., 2:1). As indicated by these multifaceted portrayals, Ezekiel has different functional identities in the book. He role plays, and a mourner is one of his many roles. Thus, Ezekiel is ‘enacting mourning,’ as it were, for the death of the community since the community deserves the judgment of death through its sin (so too Ezra 9:3–4).

What is the purpose and point of Ezekiel becoming a mourner in the midst of the exiles? If “hardened” defines the exiles in Babylon, and if Jerusalem also lacks those who mourn, one begins to understand Ezekiel’s purpose as a mourner. He mourns as a model of what they should be doing. God’s aim through Ezekiel was for them to lament over their situation before the inevitable events of 586 BC. They were to respond to their own sinful situation the way Ezekiel responded when called as a prophet to hardened people—he mourned!⁸

An attitude of mourning, to sigh, groan, and be ashamed for their sins, could potentially lead them to acknowledge wrongdoing (21:6–7, 12–13; 24:18). Though a change of circumstances would not be possible even if they were to mourn, it would show a change of heart, which would lead to a lifestyle change. God was after their hearts (14:5; 11:19; 18:31; 33:20; 36:26).

Five dominant themes grip the reader of Ezekiel. These individual themes, however, are woven into the fabric of the prophecy and should be interpreted together rather than in isolation. A distinct narrative unfolds as a result with a trajectory that anticipates the broad sweep of redemptive history.

Character of the People

The first theme concerns guilt. The condition and characterization of God’s people pertains to their guilt. Ezekiel faces hardened, rebellious, out-of-control lawbreakers. The point gets repeated from beginning to end (e.g., 2:3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; 3:7–9; 43:10; 44:6, 9). In fact, he uses the terms “iniquity,” “guilt,” or “abomination” more than any other exilic prophet to highlight both individual and national guilt. In addition, the repeated indictment-judgment sequence “because . . . therefore” prefaces prophecies of destruction (e.g., 5:7–11; 13:8–13). A large literary slice deals extensively with guilt (chs. 16–23). Four specific chapters (16, 20, 22, 23) demonstrate ongoing and escalating guilt by recollecting the historical record. Their guilt surpasses their ancestors (3:7), the nations (5:6), Samaria (23:11), even Sodom and Gomorrah (16:47). Thus, they are guilty; they have ongoing and escalating guilt. To make matters worse they were unable to admit their guilt (ch. 18; 24:19; so too Jer 3:13). Ezekiel consistently shows guilt as a fact, not a feeling. From the Lord’s perspective they fell short by not meeting his expectations and standards in the relationship; they transgressed his moral code. Moreover, they were unable to mourn nor have godly sorrow and shame about their rebellion in the relationship (9:4–8; 16:54, 63; 36:31–32; 43:10–11). 

Their guilt mainly manifests itself as idolatry.⁹ God warned in Exodus of the direct connection between lawbreaking and idolatry, but to no avail (Exod 20:22–23). Ezekiel shows how idolatry goes back to Egypt, but especially manifested itself in the wilderness (Ezek 20:5–9; 20:16). Guilt initially looked like a calf (Exod 32:1–6), but then it took on a variety of shapes and forms (1Kgs 17; 2Kgs 24) and continued to captivity “to this day” (Ezek 20:31). Idolatry is an outward manifestation of an inward heart posture of resistance or stiff-neckedness (cf. Exod 32:7–10; 33:3, 5; 34:9). Idolatry says no to God and yes to something else for guidance, provision, and protection (Exod 32:1–6). Idolatry is a personal affront to God’s holy character (cf. Ezek 20:39; 36:20–21). It places a barrier in the relationship, but ultimately it denies him glory, because he will not “share” his glory with any other (Isa 42:8; 43:6–7; 48:7–11). Ezekiel reminds the exiles that even though they had the gift of the Law in their midst, it could not keep them from resisting idolatry (20:11–26). They lacked the ability to live holy lives, for even in captivity they defiled themselves with idols (20:31). In sum, from the calf to captivity guilt emerges through idolatry. They came to this place by not continuing to acknowledge Yahweh alone as savior, redeemer, and king. They came to this place by not paying attention to the posture of their hearts, by forgetting or repressing knowledge of him (Deut 4:9–14). Their hearts demonstrated a divided devotion, were stone-like and forgetful (Ezek 11:19, 21; 22:12; 23:35). Not even circumcision of the heart could fix the problem (11:19; 36:26; Jer 31:33; cf. Deut 30:6). Tragically, Ezekiel’s audience is portrayed like idolatrous Pharaoh in Exodus (Exod 5:2; 7:13); they have hard hearts and refuse to listen to the Lord (Ezek 2:5; 3:7,11, 27). Accordingly, the book shows the people have both a heart and hearing problem. They stand guilty before a holy and just God.

The characterization of God’s people in Ezekiel corresponds to that of the NT. Paul describes the hardened and guilty nature of the Jews (Rom 2:11–29; 11:25; Acts 28:28). Paul also describes the hardened nature of the Gentiles (Rom 1:20; 2:1); hence, a universal record of guilt exists (Rom 1–3). All fall short of God’s glory (they are guilty), all are slaves to sin (Rom 3:23; 6:16), and all have an ongoing relationship with sin and guilt (1Jn 1:8). If not kept in check by the Holy Spirit, sin can escalate. The exhortation to confess, to weep, and to have a godly grief rather than a worldly grief (Jas 4:7–10; 2Cor 7:10) testifies to the difficult nature of admitting wrongdoing (cf. 1Jn 1:9; Jas 5:16; Mark 11:25). 

This is why Jesus’s concern is for the heart (Matt 9:4; Mark 7:6; chs. 21–23). Perhaps the “cross-side conversation” that Jesus shares with one of the criminals provides a vivid example of the inability to admit guilt due to a staunch heart resistance (Luke 23:39). Stephen’s interpretation of the cross asserts that guilty, stiff-necked religious people killed Jesus (Acts 7:51). Thus, from the calf to the captivity, and from the captivity to the cross, all people are guilty. For this reason, Hebrews reminds us that one has a choice relative to one’s heart posture—“do not harden your hearts”—and warns that the heart can go its own way against God, resulting in serious consequences (Heb 3:8–15; 4:7). Finally, from the cross to the consummation, a staunch refusal to go God’s way prevails (Rev 9:20–21; 16:8–9, 11). Thus, the character of the people in Ezekiel anticipates NT characterizations. The prophet goes out of his way to demonstrate the guilt of the people and brings forth incriminating evidence. The result is a confrontation with God. 

The Character of God: His Anger 

God reaches a boiling point with these guilty people. The conditions are ripe for dispensing divine justice. This lends itself to the second theme, the anger of God and its unmuted, even shocking, expressions prominent in the first half of the book (chs. 4–24). A personalized anger (“my wrath” or “my fury,” 5:13–15; 16:42) communicates the individualized nature of the affront. His anger “translates” into irrevocable words of destruction (cf. 12:25; 24:14), a merciless gaze (cf. 5:11; 7:4; 8:18), and the oft-repeated statement, “I, even I, am against you,” which reinforces the matter (5:8; 15:7; 21:3). Finally, his anger tragically culminates in the removal of his presence, divine abandonment from the Jerusalem temple, his earthly home (chs. 10–11).

After experiencing years of Yahweh’s slowness to anger in the face of blatant stiff-necked conduct since the golden calf incident, and after seeing his mercy triumph over justice (15^th –7^th century), Ezekiel’s audience comes face to face (20:35) with “a God who will by no means clear the guilty” (Exod 34:7). Their record of guilt makes it clear he is not a whimsical God imposing a severe sentence without just cause. His character of holiness is compromised, and this angers him. Anger is an expression of his holiness, a response to injustice. He is a just judge, and on this occasion his justice triumphs over mercy. Both mercy and justice represent two sides of the same coin relative to God’s character (Exod 34:6–7). On account of his justice, Yahweh will expose his anger by not removing the consequences for their bad behavior. This time God’s wrath is not stayed by the prayers and petitions of a covenant mediator (cf. Moses in Exod 32–34 ). Indeed, this covenant mediator, Ezekiel, is mute, and the fate of the people is sealed in writing by the scroll (Ezek 2:8–9). God meets his people’s uncontrollable appetite for sin (past and present) by his unstoppable desire to end it. He needs to satisfy his wrath in order to stop the problem (23:27). He judges them by spending his fury on them through the fall of Jerusalem and a seventy-year-long exile (Jer 25:12–14). His just judgment represents the first of two ways God deals with hardened hearts and rebellious guilty people in the book. The broader goal in this display of righteous anger concerns the need to acknowledge him as Yahweh (5:13–15; 13:13–16; 14:23). Although Yahweh’s anger expresses itself through the exile and divine abandonment, the language and imagery of his anger anticipates something even more severe.

This characterization of God in Ezekiel corresponds to that of the NT. Jesus shows a personalized intolerance towards the religious leaders for forsaking the things of God (Luke 13:34–35), and he expresses God’s anger in many of his parables (Matt 13:42; 18:34; 21:44; 22:7). In fact, the author of Hebrews intends to remind and warn his audience of rebellion’s serious and personal affront to God (Heb 3:11; 4:3; cf. Ps 95:11). Divine indignation confronts human guilt, which cannot be corrected by human effort (what Paul calls the “works of the law,” Rom 3:19–29). Our failure to uphold godly standards compromises his reputation as a God of holy character. Accordingly, God dispensed all his fury and outrage on Jesus instead of on us for sin’s price and consequences. With the repeated statements of “no guilt,” Luke’s Gospel draws attention to Jesus’s innocence in a profound way (Luke 23:4, 14–15, 22, 41, 47). These statements help us understand how God the Son became sin for us and satisfied God’s wrath (2Cor 5:21; Gal 3:13; Rom 3:25–26). For those who refuse to acknowledge him, the wrath of God is stored up and awaits a day to be dispensed (Rom 2:5; Eph 5:6; Col 3:6; 2Thes 1; 1Thes 5:9). A holy hostility towards all sin exists, and God’s wrath is real (Rom 1:18; 5:6). He meets opposition with opposition. Thus, the anger of God vividly characterized in Ezekiel anticipates the wrath of God in the NT. The prophet does not dumb down God’s anger but demonstrates that a confrontation remains unavoidable.

Death, Devastation, Destruction

Guilty people are justly condemned to death and death-like experiences per the promised Deuteronomic curses (Deut 28:15–68), something fully activated when the Lord leaves his earthly shrine (Ezek 11:22–24). Death represents a third theme that emerges. Ezekiel speaks of death primarily in physical terms related to the consequences of exile. The book shows how the city, its environs, and the temple will see further devastation with the final Babylonian invasion (Ezek 4–11). This includes human slaughter, famine, and hunger, and a third exile. Ezekiel alerts his audience to this reality. Descriptions of death on the entire fabric of Israelite social, religious, and political customs fill the pages. The people, land, and temple are all defiled and contaminated because of sin, which accounts for the abundance of death imagery in the book. In the vision of temple abandonment, Pelatiah dies on the scene (11:13). He mentions the death of Zedekiah (12:13–14) and raises a lament for Jehoahaz, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah (19:1–14), those soon to be dead when Jerusalem experiences its final days. The death of Ezekiel’s own wife signals a portent of what will befall the temple in Jerusalem (24:15–27). The death of Tyre’s king (28:1) causes Ezekiel to lament, and the description of Egypt’s demise is spoken of with death and burial imagery, as is Gog’s (chs. 38–39). As a mourner, Ezekiel is enacting mourning for the “death” of the community. 

Ezekiel also speaks of death in spiritual terms. When Ezekiel falls on his face as though dead until the spirit infuses him to life (1:28; 2:2), this mirrors the happenings with the nation. The valley filled with bones that have been dead for a long time reflects it the best (37:1–14). In the vision, the physical reality of an open graveyard represents a spiritual reality. The people are the living dead and feel as though they are without hope (37:11). The question posed to Ezekiel by God, “Son of man, can these bones live?” (37:3), gets to the heart of the matter. Can life come out of death? Without supernatural divine intervention, life cannot come out of death. For this reason, God will say, “repent and live” (18:32; 33:31–33). In all of this talk of death throughout the book, God makes it clear he does not delight in death (18:23; ch. 32)! Rather, the goal in bearing the covenantal curse of death and death-like consequences pertains to a renewed understanding of Yahweh (cf. 23:48–49). Although the language and imagery of death speaks specifically to the covenantal curse for disobedience—a separation through exile from God’s promises—death in Ezekiel anticipates much more. 

The reality of death and destruction in Ezekiel as a just judgment for sin’s penalty, aimed for out-of-control lawbreakers, prepares us for the realities of the NT. The NT writers show death in two main ways. On the one hand, the NT speaks of death as a temporary separation from God, a spiritual death described in Ephesians: “You were dead in your transgressions and sins” (Eph 2:1–5; Col 2:13). Indeed, the “wages of sin is death,” and “in Adam all die” (Rom 6:23; 1Cor 15:22). Our inability to keep God’s law places the covenantal curse of death on us (Gal 3:10). Jesus experienced death, divine abandonment, and separation from the Father, the ultimate covenantal curse in our place. On the other hand, death refers to eternal separation (physically and spiritually) from God (Matt 25:31–46; Rev 20:14), reserved for those who refuse to acknowledge Jesus as Lord. Those who have placed their faith in Christ don’t ever have to fear death nor the divine wrath (1Thes 5:9). As Paul reminds, “O death, where is thy sting? (1Cor 15:55 KJV). We have peace with God because his wrath was satisfied on account of Jesus’s work at the cross. Ezekiel vividly demonstrates the spiritual and physical consequences for sin. Thus, the prophet visualizes what “death” or separation from God looks like due to sin: a deserved judgment. 

Life, Restoration, and Reconciliation

How then shall we live (33:10)? This legitimate question posed by Ezekiel’s audience receives a partial answer in chapter 33 but especially in Ezekiel 34–48. Out of death comes life. This introduces the fourth theme of restoration. To be sure, there are hints of restoration earlier in the book (5:1–4; 6:8; 9:4; 11:16–20; 12:16; 14:22; 16:53; 17:22; 18:32). However, the topic takes center stage in these chapters (34–48) because God desires life, not death (18:23; chs. 30–32; 33:11). 

Since there remains an impasse—no significant change in the lives and hearts of his people—God’s compassion provides a bridge (39:25, rhm). His compassion, first on the list of attributes he communicated to Moses about himself (Exod 34:6), triggers the process. Compassion alone causes him to initiate and bring about new conditions. It is an act void of human assistance since he reserves rhm for those of his choosing (Exod 33:19; 34:6). God takes the initiative quite apart from their repentance (so too, Ps 78:38; Deut 30:1–3; 2Chr 30:9; Isa 14:1; 49:13; Jer 12:15; 33:26; Mic 7:19). “For behold, I am for you” declares the Lord as he initiates restoration (Ezek 36:8). Envisioning restoration is intended to produce a godly sorrow due to God’s undeserved kindness (cf. 16:54, 63; 43:10–11).

Restoration in Ezekiel commences when God confronts the nations that hurt Israel (chs. 25–32). Comfort comes to his people when he redresses the wrongs done to them and removes the external threat of the neighboring nations. Restoration then entails the removal of uncompassionate and uncaring shepherds. He installs a caring and compassionate shepherd servant (34:1–24) and a return to their inheritance, a land now cleansed (35:1–36:38). But restoration especially concerns a ritual cleansing followed by a successful heart surgery performed by God on his people. He replaces resistant and unteachable hearts (of stone) with receptive and teachable hearts (of flesh; 36:25–29). This process shows that the internal threat (their idolatrous hearts) has been removed. Accordingly, Ezekiel assures that the harm brought about from 606 BC, 597 BC, and 586 BC will never happen again. He has turned mourning, lamentation, and woe into a time to rejoice, given these new circumstances. 

Ezekiel also shows that restoration is akin to a resurrection and therefore supernatural (37:1–14). Dead people can live again because of God’s life-giving power. Restoration unites his people (37:15–28). Not even a surge of opposition can threaten the unified people of God, since he fights on their behalf and wins (chs. 38–39). In this regard restoration is permanent because all threats to his sovereignty have been removed (the idolatry of his own people [chs. 4–24], local enemies [chs. 25–32]; and foreign enemies [chs. 38–39]. When his glory returns to the temple and he takes his seat in the midst of his people forever, restoration is complete. His people will never defile his holy name again (43:1–12; 43:13–48:35). Restoration is ongoing and produces fruit because of the river flowing from the temple (47:1–12). The goal in describing and envisioning restoration pertains to acknowledging the name of Yahweh once again and a re-assessment of their own character (cf. 16:62–63; 43:10–12). This represents the second way God deals with hardened, rebellious, guilty hearts: he cleanses and restores them. Although Israel’s restoration commences in 539 BC with Cyrus’s decree enabling a return to the land and a rebuilt temple (Ezra 1:1–6:22), the restoration achieved by Ezra-Nehemiah falls short of Ezekiel’s description. The language and imagery of restoration that Ezekiel speaks of anticipates something far grander than the admirable accomplishments of Ezra-Nehemiah. 

Restoration in Ezekiel prepares the reader for the realities of the NT. “According to his great mercy, he has caused us to be born again to a living hope through the resurrection . . .” (1Pet 1:3; cf. Eph 2:4; Heb 8:12). God’s mercy bridges the gap. He initiates the acquittal of the guilty and the subsequent restoration and reconciliation to himself! While we were weak and enemies of God, we were reconciled to God by the death of his son (Rom 5:6, 10). There is now no condemnation for those in Christ Jesus (Rom 8:1) because he eliminates our record that stood against us (Col 2:14). The cross shows us what it looks like for God to be for us: “If God is for us, who can be against us?” (Rom 8:31). The cross is where hard hearts become humble and exhibit a godly shame for sin. 

Jesus, the Good and Great Shepherd of the sheep (1Pet 5:4; Heb 13:20), provides compassionate, caring, and sacrificial leadership. The cross is a visual reality of the shepherd-servant laying down his life for the sake of the flock. Jesus’s blood cleanses us from all sin and unrighteousness (1Jn 1:9); in so doing, he saves us by performing heart surgery. The new birth implies a new heart (John 3:3; 2Cor 4:16; 5:17). A supernatural transformation takes place because Jesus is “the resurrection and the life” (John 11:25). As a result, we are united with Christ and with one another (Gal 3:26–28; Eph 1:10–11; 4:3–6; John 17:20–23). He fills us with the new life of his Spirit, who empowers us for holy living to enjoy his promises forever in a renewed relationship (Rom 8:1–30). Restoration is ongoing and daily because of the work of the Holy Spirit and his abiding presence in our lives. Restoration is incomplete (not yet) as long as we live in these bodies of death (1Cor 15:35–55; Rom 7:21–24). But restoration is complete (now) because he returns to temples not made with human hands (Eph 4:30). Restoration is permanent because he has destroyed all obstacles (external and internal) to his sovereignty. Jesus triumphed over the devil and powers of darkness. He humiliated the enemy and revealed his holiness and sovereign power over sin and death (Col 2:13–15). He removed the temporary sin barrier separating us from God’s presence. Indeed, the resurrection enables the supernatural transformation from death to life. This saving act of cleansing and restoration required no human assistance for it is “in Christ” that we are holy and blameless before God. He made us alive together with Christ, and because of our new position, we are dead to sin and alive to Christ (Rom 6:3–4; Eph 2:5). Although the restoration process commences with the cross and giving of the Holy Spirit, it awaits ultimate fulfilment in the consummation. Thus, Ezekiel houses a profound message about restoration that boggles the mind. The prophet visualizes an undeserved restoration. 

Worldwide Knowledge of the Sovereign Lord and His Holiness

The fifth and final theme concerns the desire to be acknowledged as Yahweh. Numerous times the statement “And you/they will know that I am the LORD” punctuates prophesies of both judgment (5:13; 6:7; 13:9) and restoration (16:62; 20:41; 34:27), mainly for Israel, but also in the oracles against the onlooking nations, including Gog of Magog (28:20–23; 29:6; 38:16, 23; 39:7, 21). Israel initially acquired knowledge of Yahweh through the exodus experience. This resulted in their safety from Pharaoh’s wrath (Exod 14:29–31), but more critically it resulted in safety from God’s wrath (Exod 12:23–30). Accordingly, they worshipped and acknowledged him as “Lord” and “King” when they saw the enemy dead on the seashore (Exod 14:31; 15:1–18). Egypt and the nations afterward, too, initially acquired knowledge of Yahweh on account of what he did for his people in the exodus, though Pharaoh, prototypical of the nations, does not acknowledge and worship Yahweh (cf. Exod 5:2).¹⁰ In Exodus, God’s people and the nations know him by his acts of salvation and judgment. In Ezekiel, however, God is no respecter of persons. Ezekiel shows that God’s own people will know him by his acts of judgment and restoration. 

God’s people quickly stopped recognizing and acknowledging Yahweh only as Lord due to outside influences, but mostly because of hardness of heart. This pattern commenced with the golden calf incident (Exod 32:1–10) and continued up to Ezekiel’s time (Ezek 20) and beyond (Ezra 9–10; Neh 8–10). In Ezekiel their divided hearts caused them to worship idols alongside or in place of Yahweh (11:19). But the Lord does not share his glory, praise, or reputation with idols (Isa 42:8). He goes out of his way in Ezekiel with radical “signs” to remind them of their initial confession, “Yahweh is my salvation, this is my God, and I will praise him” (Exod 15:2). Only this time, instead of acquiring that knowledge through salvation (by sparing them an experience with his wrath), he exposes his own people to his wrath (consequences for sin) to acquire knowledge of his character (cf. Ezek 5:9–12). Likewise, he exposes the nations to his wrath (chs. 25–32; 38–39) in order to achieve glory and manifest his character. But the story does not end here. God also goes out of his way to give Ezekiel radical signs and visions of Israel’s restoration purposefully designed to generate a heartfelt change, one that rekindles their faith in Yahweh (cf. 34:27; 37:13).

In this regard, the king/prince Gog who offers a final existential threat to God’s restored people before Gog’s demise is significant (chs. 38–39). With God’s defeat of Gog, the nations will know why Israel went into exile. It was not due to a character flaw with Yahweh, but with his people (39:16–28). With the defeat of Gog, God’s holiness and glory are established among the nations. God achieves his ultimate purpose: “the nations will know that I am the Lord” (38:16, 23; 39:7, 21). All external threats (chs. 38–39; 25–32) to his glory have been removed. Thus, God’s people and the nations know him by his acts of judgment and restoration in Ezekiel, the twofold manner in which the truth of God’s character manifests itself (Exod 34:6–7). In this regard, Ezekiel 39:21–29 functions as a succinct statement that ties the themes of the book together, revealing its purposes for Ezekiel’s exilic audience and future generations. Although Yahweh achieves name recognition through judgment and restoration in Ezekiel, it anticipates far more.

Ezekiel prepares us for the revelation of God that comes in the NT. The cross depicts God’s greatest visual for humankind to acquire knowledge of him (his compassion, grace, and justice). It represents the place where God’s mercy and justice collide, where he saves, judges, and restores. God’s end goal for Jesus’s work on the cross concerned receiving name recognition, for “the praise of his glorious grace” (Eph 1:6). Indeed, “Jesus is Lord” becomes the declaration of those who believe in the “sign” of the cross for salvation (Rom 10:9). In fact, “salvation is found in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven given to mankind by which we must be saved” shows the exclusive nature of Jesus (Acts 4:12). These declarations spread the knowledge and understanding of God’s character to the world. It prepares for the day when the whole earth will be filled with the knowledge of the glory of God as the waters covers the seas (Hab 2:14; 3:3; Isa 6:3; 11:9). Because of the public and decisive triumph won at the cross (Col 2:14–15), along with the resurrection (Rom 4:25; 1Pet 1:3) that ensured our justification (Rom 4:25), God’s glory and praise is assured for all time.

Ezekiel also prepares us for the final threat by evil nations against God’s people represented by the Holy City (cf. Heb 12:22). The idea of a sudden threat preceding the final judgment and consummation against the nations is reflected in the Olivet Discourse (Mark 13:1–37; Matt 24:1–25; Luke 21:5–38), Paul’s sequence of events prior to Christ’s return with the “man of lawlessness” (2Thes 2:1–12), and THE battle in John’s Revelation (Rev 16:16; 19:19–21; 20:7–10). With respect to the latter, through the fourfold hallelujahs and outcry of praises by the great multitude in Revelation, God receives all the glory for destroying the enemy: “Salvation and glory and power belong to our God, for his judgments are true and just” (Rev 19:1–8). Revelation assures no harm will come to God’s people ever again, “For the Lord our God the Almighty reigns” (Rev 19:6). Indeed, the Second Coming is THE day when he will be revealed from heaven, and he will inflict vengeance upon those who do not know Jesus and on those who have not obeyed the gospel (2Thes 1:8). All will see him coming in the clouds (Rev 1:7). It is THE day when he will be “glorified in his saints and . . . be marveled at in all who have believed” (2Thes 1:5–10). 

Ultimately, Ezekiel points us to the consummation of God’s kingdom. Judgment and restoration of the people and city in Ezekiel prepare us for the restored people and city that culminates in Revelation. John sees the holy city, the New Jerusalem coming down out of heaven from God. The New Jerusalem is the true spiritual center (Rev 21:1–2). In the New Jerusalem, mourning has turned to joy, and out of death comes life (Rev 21:4–5). The New Jerusalem is the seat of Yahweh’s sovereignty, which is no longer challenged but stands forever. Idolatry is no longer a threat. The New Jerusalem is holy and pure (Rev 22:3–5). Through the praise and adoration of those present, Yahweh will receive continual glory and honor. The New Jerusalem is the seat of the divine presence (Rev 21:3–4; ch. 22). Yahweh has provided a way for our mourning to turn to joy. Out of death comes new life. Is it any wonder that the heavenly anthem that resounds in Revelation is all about granting God glory? The four living creatures, the twenty-four elders, myriads of angels, and people from every tongue and language are around the throne of God, his seat of sovereignty over the universe, giving him unending praise and adoration (Rev 4:8). In this respect, Ezekiel anticipates the cross, the resurrection, and the consummation of God’s kingdom where at long last the divine desire to be known and acknowledged will be fulfilled. Indeed, “At the name of Jesus every knee should bow . . . and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father” (Phil 2:9–11; Rom 14:10–11).

Thus, God deals with the heart problem of his people in two ways in Ezekiel: he judges AND he restores. All these themes (condition of God’s people, anger of God, death, restoration, and knowledge of the Lord) taken collectively create a cogent narrative particular to Ezekiel. Although the book follows the standard judgment and restoration pattern of other prophets (e.g., Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Zephaniah), Ezekiel’s broader narrative is patterned after the well-known city lament genre in the ancient Near East. Important elements of that genre include lamentation, death and destruction, and the anger of the gods manifested by temple abandonment. Also included in the city lament genre is the topic of restoration whereby the deity(ies) returns to their earthly shrines. The imprint of the city lament genre for the entire collection of his prophecies is illustrated by the comparable themes, emphasis on the city of Jerusalem, Ezekiel’s mourning role throughout, and how mourning unfolds in the book.

Ezekiel highlights Israel’s unrelenting sin of rebellion and idolatry, which leads to Yahweh’s unrelenting anger culminating in the fall of the city as well as God’s unrelenting loyalty culminating in the restoration of a city-like structure.

“Then they shall know that I am the Lord their God, because I sent them into exile among the nations and then assembled them into their own land. I will leave none of them remaining among the nations anymore. And I will not hide my face anymore from them, when I pour out my Spirit upon the house of Israel, declares the Lord God.”

— Ezekiel 38:28–29 ESV

I. Vision, Voice, and Vocation (1:1–3:27)

II. Visuals of the Siege and Violations in Jerusalem and Its End (4:1–5:17)

III. Violations in the Mountains and Visualizing the End of the Land (6:1–7:27)

IV. Violations in the Temple and Its End (8:1–11:25)

V. Visuals of the Exile (12:1–28)

VI. Voices Not Validated by God (13:1–14:23)

VII. Vine, Vile Prostitute, and Vacillating Vassal (15:1–17:24)

VIII. Verifying Theological Constructs (18:1–19:14)

IX. A History of Servitude to Vile Images: A Walk Down Memory Lane (20:1–44)

X. A Voracious Sword (20:45–21:32)

XI. History of Violence and Military Reliance (22:1–23:49)

XII. The Beginning of the End: Siege Starts and Visual of Temple’s Destruction (24:1–27)

XIII. Vindication Visible from Venomous Neighbors (25:1–32:32)

XIV. Valid Warning Restated and News of City’s Destruction (33:1–33)

XV. Restored Leadership: The Caring and Compassionate Shepherd (34:1–31)

XVI. A Restored Inheritance: The Land Reclaimed (35:1–36:15)

XVII. A Restored Reputation: A New Heart and Spirit (36:16–38)

XVIII. A Restored Life Together in the Land (37:1–28)

XIX. Restoration Permanent: All Enemies Defeated (38:1–39:29)

XX. A Restored Worship: Vision of God’s Victory and Holiness (40:1–48:35)

1:1–3 The setting. The opening three verses read much like a journal entry of a careful scribe. At the age of thirty, Ezekiel, soon to turn prophet, would have functioned as a priest had he not been carried away from Jerusalem. He encounters the supernatural. The heavens are opened up, and he sees several “visions of God” in Babylon (see also 3:22–23; 8:1; 37:1; 40:1). In foreign and enemy territory, both the “word of the Lord” (cf. 2:7; 3:4, 10; 7:1; 12:1; 16:1) and the “hand of the Lord” (1:3; 3:14, 22) impact him profoundly. God’s word, care, action, and possession of Ezekiel redirect and empower his life. This supernatural intrusion commences in 593/2 BC, five years into the second exile that took place in 597 BC, sending Jehoiachin, Judah’s next-to-last king, also into exile. It continues for about twenty-one years of his life.¹¹

Their geographical locale “by the Kebar River” is critical for two reasons. First, it places the exiles in a close suburb of Nippur, where the “home” (ziggurat) of Enlil the “storm god,” “god of gods,” resided and ruled. It is possible, based on the archaeological evidence, that Ezekiel could have seen the seventy-foot ruins of the ancient ziggurat from his house (Petter, 111). The latter might explain the storm imagery of Yahweh used in the book (cf. 1:4; 13:11, 13; 38:9, 12, 15–16). It might equally shed light on Yahweh’s strong desire for name recognition, perhaps in part as a polemic towards Enlil. Second, the city of Nippur produced one of the five principal Mesopotamian city laments. As the name suggests, these documents lament a city’s downfall and have distinct features. Given the prominence of Jerusalem in the book, Ezekiel’s mourning role, and the themes that surface, it is possible that Ezekiel is a prophetic reuse of that genre. This is not unlike Deuteronomic reliance and reuse of the covenantal treaty format. Thus, the setting (1:1–3) together with what follows (1:4–3:37) functions as a coherent literary slice setting a heavy tone and agenda for the entire book and ministry of Ezekiel. The characterization of God (as king and judge) and his people (rebellious and guilty) noted here radiates throughout the first half of Ezekiel (chs. 4–24) and in select places in the restoration material (chs. 34–48). After orienting the reader in this way, he shares his supernatural experience. Ezekiel encounters a vision, hears a voice, receives a prophetic vocation, and responds as one in mourning (1:4–3:27). 

1:4–28 The vision: God in human-like form. What exactly does Ezekiel see in this vision? The end of the chapter provides the answer. Although still plenty mysterious and vague, “This was the appearance of the likeness of the glory of the Lord” (1:28).¹² The glory, however, becomes more specific to him as the description unfolds in the vision. The glory resembles a “human,” or, more literally, it was the “likeness of Adam.” This male image recalls adam in God’s image (Gen 1:26–27; it also anticipates the second Adam, Rom 5:14; 1Cor 15:45–49). This Adam-ish person was seated on a throne encompassed by a cloud. Shrouded by a massive storm cloud, Ezekiel was the first in the great line up of God’s servants specifically to see Israel’s God like a human being. He comes as king and judge. 

God as king. His position “seated on a throne” (1:26) suggests sovereignty over his domain and a righteous ruling as judge. While on his throne (1:22–27), heavenly attendants escort the king of the universe to Ezekiel and the exiles (possibly from his earthly seat in the Jerusalem temple or his heavenly seat over all creation). These attendants designated as “four living creatures” are identified later by Ezekiel as cherubim (10:14, 20) during his second vision (chs. 8–11). Along with blocking direct access to the divine presence (cf. Gen 3:24; 1Kgs 6:23–29), these provide the needed “taxi service” for the king. In fact, the intriguing description of these creatures directly correlates to their escort function. These details are not found elsewhere in the biblical text. 

The cherubim have supernatural strength (1:4–11) and the ability to see in any direction (four faces) and to move (four wheels) at a moment’s notice anytime and anywhere (1:12–21). Their transportation depended on a spirit, a divine power providing energy or life (1:12, 20, 21; 2:2, 12). They had an orientation in all directions. Based on the iconography of divine and mythical creatures from the ancient world, some identify the cherubim more specifically as birds, winged children, winged adults, winged oxen, griffins, or winged sphinxes. Attempts at specific interpretations about their description fall short. The vision deliberately leaves their identification mysterious. Instead, it emphasizes their mobility. 

These beings bear the throne of God. Accordingly, over the heads of the cherubim was a crystal-like platform (cf. Exod 24:10) supported by the cherubim whose noisy wings were heard as they flew around bearing the king on this platform.¹³ Yet when the noise of their wings halted, it allowed a “voice” from the platform to be heard (1:22–25, 28). Indeed, Ezekiel will soon hear “the voice of the one speaking” (1:28–3:11). He then notices a brilliant, blue-colored throne (perhaps sapphire) on which a radiant human figure sat. Thus, that which the cherubim were supporting, transporting, and guarding (so too Gen 3:24) was the breathtaking throne chariot of the Sovereign King (1:26). As a result of such service by the cherubim, God is characterized as on the move and present to act. The mobile “throne” bearing God’s seat of sovereignty becomes visible not only outside of the Holy of Holies (Exod 25:18–22) but also outside of Jerusalem to Ezekiel in Babylon. God comes as king in Ezekiel’s vision. 

God as judge. God also comes as a just judge. In typical OT fashion, God’s glorious presence, described with cloud imagery, approaches. The approach comes from the north (1:4). The northerly direction from which the cloud arrives along with its immensity seems to provide an ominous sign (cf. 23:23–24; 26:7; Isa 41:25; Jer 1:13–15; 4:6). Enemies attacked from the north. Israel’s God approaches in similar fashion but to execute just judgment on his own people for reasons that the speaking voice will soon indicate. Yet both the storm cloud and mention of the rainbow in the clouds represent contrasting elements of God’s presence. God was now with the exiles in Babylon (the real sanctuary is a person) and in this way, the appearance is positive, as positive as a “bow that is in the cloud on the day of rain” (Ezek 1:28). However, since the Lord’s presence emerges from a “great cloud” out of the north, it seems that he is advancing like an enemy, clearly a bad indicator (43:3). This is further established in the ominous nature of the speaking voice that provides Ezekiel with an additional vocational opportunity. Such is the characterization of the likeness of God’s glory and appearance in the opening vision. Not only does Ezekiel see God in human-like form coming as king and judge, but he also hears his voice.

2:1–2 The voice and vocation: “Son of man, stand!” After this jaw-dropping experience of seeing God in human form, the king and judge communicates personally to a finite human being repeatedly designated as “son of man,” or literally “son of Adam” (ben-’adam, over ninety times). Given the close literary proximity to the “likeness of Adam” seated on the throne (1:26), the specific terminology shows an undeniable familial relationship between the two. The designation holds in tension Ezekiel’s nearness yet distance to the Lord (so too Ps 8:4). Its use throughout the book instead of Ezekiel, his given name, suggests a unique role as a human, a special representative of the Lord selected to serve not unlike Daniel (Dan 8:17), and not unlike the messianic figure Daniel mentions (Aramaic, Dan 7:13).¹⁴ The first part of the communication from the king and judge calls for him to stand—the vision left Ezekiel as good as dead (1:28). He is then enlivened supernaturally by a divine spirit who empowers him to hear God’s voice (Ezek 3:24; 37:1–10; Gen 1:2–3; Isa 48:15–16; 37:1). Without such empowerment the word of the Lord cannot energize.

2:3–10 “Son of man, I am sending you to a rebellious nation” (2:3–4). The second part of the communication entails critical information about his exilic audience. God repeatedly communicates to Ezekiel that his audience is rebellious, obstinate, stubborn, and hardened towards God (2:3–9; 3:7, 26, 27). In chapter two alone, he is told six times in five verses (2:3–7) the difficult nature of his new vocation as prophet (2:5) and four more times in the rest of this section (3:8, 9, 26, 27). His audience also has hearing problems (2:5, 7; 3:7, 11, 27). Sadly, this “stubborn” posture resembles their descendants (2:3–4), who earned themselves a less than attractive reputation as “stiff-necked” on account of the golden calf (Exod 32:1–12). The nation bears a heavy weight of responsibility for their unhealthy heart posture towards God. In a word, they are guilty, and as the book unfolds, God exposes the nature of their guilt. 

Even though they have malfunctioning body parts showing that serious spiritual impediments exist, the exiles will be able to discern and acknowledge Ezekiel as a prophet of the Lord (2:5). The test for a true or false prophet pertains to the fulfillment of their predictions (Deut 18:20–22). When the siege starts and Jerusalem falls over the period of the next seven years (Ezek 24:2; 33:21), Ezekiel’s audience will recognize God’s voice through the prophet. God will reveal his character and vindicate his name when Ezekiel’s predictions come to pass, because God is the one speaking (33:33). 

“Son of man, do not be afraid, listen, do not rebel, open your mouth and eat what I give you” (2:6–8). The third part of the communication makes it clear they will welcome neither the messenger nor the message (2:2:6–7). Rebellious, stubborn, and hardened people make the son of man’s mission hard and seemingly impossible. In fact, their deep-seated trait of rebellion makes them prickly (like briers and thorns) and even dangerous to be with (scorpion-like). The communication entails a series of commands for God’s agent, the “son of man”: don’t fear their demeanor (2:6), speak to them (2:7), hear me, don’t be rebellious and eat (2:8); eat, go and speak to them (3:1) and don’t fear (2:9); I am strengthening your demeanor (2:6–3:11). Eating provides the focal point of these commands. Initially, he is told to eat without any indication of what the menu entails (2:8), an event meant to test and reveal Ezekiel’s heart towards God in contrast with his audience. But then he is given a scroll to digest (2:9). The description of the scroll is revealing. The scroll’s nature is fixed due to its divine origin (2:9) and because it was fully written upon (2:10). This suggests the impossibility of any additions or changes. The scroll concerns “lamentation and mourning and woe” (2:10) due to Jerusalem’s guilt and upcoming downfall. The Lord has decreed anguish and severe emotional turmoil, ongoing cries likened to death pangs on the basis of the scroll’s content, a destiny that is non-negotiable. On the one hand, the edible scroll sets a specific and undeniable heavy tone for Ezekiel’s ministry. On the other, it seems to describe some of the contents of Ezekiel’s book, even if not all of it reads like a lament. The eating of the scroll appears to be more than just a test of Ezekiel’s obedience. Both the description of the scroll and Ezekiel’s response at the end of the vision are indicators (3:12–15).

3:1–11“Son of man, eat!” Upon receiving the scroll, Ezekiel proceeds to eat as directed (3:1–3). But surprisingly, following God’s command, it touched Ezekiel’s sense of taste in a positive way: “it was in my mouth as sweet as honey” (3:3; see Jer 15:16; 36:24; Pss 19:10; 119:103; Rev 10:9–10). Eating symbolizes the appropriation of God’s words, something else the exiles struggled with due to their hardened nature. In addition, four of the five human senses characterize Ezekiel’s experience in this opening vision (seeing, hearing, touching, and tasting). Smell will follow when he burns some of his hair (Ezek 5:15). Obeying the command to eat demonstrates Ezekiel is not hardened or numb to God’s commands. Internalizing the scroll is equivalent to internalizing the divine message, critical for a faithful prophet of the Lord. This act of eating reveals Ezekiel’s character in contrast to his audience, further described in what follows.

3:4–11 “Son of man, go now and speak!” The fourth part of the communication further describes the difficult nature of his task. A cross-cultural mission to those with “foreign speech” would have been easier for Ezekiel. This is so because foreigners (those not a part of God’s covenantal community) would not be as rebellious. They would actually listen and, in fact, be ready to hear and heed the word of God (3:5–6; Jon 3:5; Mal 1:10–11; Rom 10:20–21). Sadly, the people Ezekiel faces are worse than foreigners. In addition to having a listening problem and stiff necks (2:4), they also have “hard foreheads/faces” (3:7). In this regard they are worse than their ancestors. But the real shock is that they have “hard” hearts (3:7–8). This not-so-subtle statement recalls Pharaoh and his hard heart posture towards God when confronted by Moses. They have head, heart, and hearing problems just like unbelieving, idolatrous Pharaoh (Exod 5:2; 7:13). Thus, God’s own people are showing resistance and rebellion on par with such an individual. God prepares Ezekiel for the fact that he will come face to face with hard hearts and foreheads/faces. Ezekiel prepares his audience for the ironic fact that they will come face to face with God as king and judge (Ezek 20:35), one who “by no means clears the guilty (Exod 34:7). Ezekiel not only becomes a prophet (2:5) but also a mourner as a result of eating a scroll containing lamentation, mourning, and woe. Indeed, his subsequent response provides evidence of this fact. 

3:12–15 The son of man’s response to the voice and vocation. After the mission critical communication from the king and judge, the vision concludes as dramatically as it started. The same loud, attention-grabbing sound (1:24) of the cherubim’s movement now retreats to the background as the vision fades (3:12). Likewise, the same external force (“divine wind” or “spirit”) that caused him to stand earlier (2:2) causes him to return “to the exiles at Tel Aviv” in Babylon (3:14–15). In all of this Ezekiel’s first-person response reflects continued awareness of the supernatural and God’s possession of his very being (“the hand of the Lord being strong on me”). But the first-person narrative also reflects his own emotional response to the vision, voice, and new vocation. 

Ezekiel reports that he is filled with strong emotions (3:14). These feelings coincide naturally with the written content of the scroll he swallowed (2:10) and the ominous message from the speaking voice. He sits among the exiles for seven days deeply distressed, overwhelmed, in a stunned silence and motionless. This is the typical posture and length of a ritual period of mourning (cf. Gen 50:10; 1Sam 31:13; 1Chr 10:12). Ezekiel describes himself as one participating in mourning rites (cf. Job 2:13). By becoming what he ate, he becomes a mourner and subsequently does what mourners do. Ezekiel functions as both a mourner and prophet.

3:16–21 “Son of man give them warning.” Ezekiel, the watchman. After seven days of mourning and sitting in a stunned silence, the Lord speaks again to Ezekiel (3:16–21). The king and judge not only calls Ezekiel to be a prophet and mourner, but his vocation also entails a related task as Israel’s watchman, one who warns of impending danger. A watchman was responsible to protect, defend, and care for the people (see 33:1–6). Stationed in a lookout tower on the city wall, a watchman was responsible to sound a trumpet for soldiers and civilians in the city at the sight of approaching danger or attack (Isa 21:6–9; Hos 9:8; Hab 2:1). God asks Ezekiel to give people fair warning of their present crisis: rebellion which results in death and lamentation. The nation is made up of individuals whom he must warn. His watchman role zooms in on individuals: “a wicked person” (3:18) or, by contrast, “a righteous person” who “turns from their righteousness and does evil” (3:20). These individuals need warning, not of enemy invasion, but that death awaits those who oppose God. Those who have abandoned righteousness and embraced what is evil will be put to the test by God personally (3:20; see 14:9; Deut 13:3; 2Sam 24:1). This watchman’s warning of death ties into both his mourning and prophetic roles. 

3:22–27 “Get up and go out to the plain; Go, shut yourself inside your house.” The Lord manifests his glory for a second time in the plain (probably where Ezekiel lived, 3:24), and wants to speak further with him (3:23–24). God continues to be on the move. It wasn’t just an isolated incident to see and hear God speak at the Kebar canal, outside the Jerusalem temple. His response to this appearance of the “glory” in the valley—falling face down—mirrors his first response to the glory at the Kebar River (1:28; 2:1–2). Only a divine spirit can energize and empower the prophet to hear and obey God’s word (3:24; cf. 2:2). The first command, “go out into the valley/plain,” provides a preface to the second command, “go shut yourself within your house” (3:24). 

God now communicates severe limitations he places on Ezekiel, limitations in line with his vocation as a mourner. The Lord demands Ezekiel’s seclusion (3:24). He seems to secure it by having him bound with cords (3:24–25); a typical prophet would go out amongst the people. God also secures Ezekiel’s silence by making him speechless but only until he needs to deliver a word from the Lord (3:26–27); prophets are not usually speechless either. Generally, to be secluded and motionless is connected to silence as a sign of mourning (2Sam 12:16–23). Furthermore, his silence is coterminous with the fate of Jerusalem. The Lord later promised that on the day the fugitive arrives with the news of Jerusalem’s fall, Ezekiel will again speak (Ezek 24:25–27), and that happened (33:21–23). The prophet’s confinement and speechlessness encompassed about a seven-and-a-half-year period (ca. 593–586 BC) and might best be understood in terms of an extended mourning period (3:15). Thus, the Lord manifests his glory for a second time to a confined and “speechless” prophet, mourner, and watchman. The speaking voice that commenced in 2:3 and warned about the rebellious character of Ezekiel’s audience now concludes with a fresh reminder of this sad reality: “for they are a rebellious house” (3:27). 

Ezekiel’s experience of a throne room vision, hearing a voice, and receiving a vocation is somewhat reminiscent of Isaiah years prior. In a vision he, too, sees the Lord on a throne, but in his expected temple habitation (Isa 6:1–4). In Isaiah’s own words, “my eyes have seen the King, the Lord Almighty” (Isa 6:5). The heavenly attendants in this vision declare God’s holiness (Isa 6:3). Isaiah hears not only the heavenly anthem of the seraphim but also the voice of the Lord and is propelled into service as a prophet (Isa 6:8) to unholy people (Isa 6:5). Isaiah sees God as king and judge and is being sent as prophet to proclaim the judge’s righteous ruling on unholy people, calloused and hardened by sin (Isa 6:5, 9–10). From a biblical-theological point of view, that Ezekiel sees God outside God’s expected habitation also points to the reality of Solomon’s prayer (1Kgs 8:27) that as redemptive history moves forward, God will no longer dwell in houses made with human hands. What Ezekiel sees anticipates God appearing in human form when Jesus comes as king and judge to deal with hard hearts once and for all (John 1:14; 5:22–23; 9:8). 

Ezekiel’s supernatural encounter provides background for the apostle John in his exile on the Island of Patmos (1:9). John, too, sees the Lord, hears a voice, and receives a prophetic vocation (Rev 1:3; 10:11). John says he was “in the Spirit,” which equates to a supernatural experience like Ezekiel and Isaiah, respectively (Ezek 1:4; Isa 6:1). He hears a loud voice asking him to write what he sees on a scroll (Rev 1:10–11). Indeed, the writing is “the words of the prophecy of this scroll” (Rev 22:18). John identifies the speaking voice as “someone like the son of man” (cf. Dan 7:13, a messianic figure). But this “someone” declares of himself, “I am the Living One; I was dead and now look, I am alive for ever. And I hold the keys of death and Hades!” (Rev 1:18). John sees a vision of the risen Christ who possesses full sovereignty and rules and reigns over life and death. The Lord appears to purge the churches (Rev 2:16, 18, 23) and to judge the persecutors of the saints (Rev 8:7–12; 9:3, 11, 16; 11:15). John also has a throne room scene situated in the heavenlies that centers the entire vision. God is envisioned as sovereign. He is at the control room of the universe as king and just judge heaping bowls of wrath on those who reject him (Rev 15–16) and bringing about the fall of the great harlot and beast (Rev 17–19), and ultimately judging once and for all the dragon, Satan himself (Rev 20). Thus Isaiah, Ezekiel, and John reveal God as king and judge.

Ezekiel’s call experience in these chapters shows what it looks like to be compelled and propelled by God’s hand for service. That God raises up Ezekiel as his special agent, as prophet, mourner, and watchman seems gracious yet perplexing at the same time. Why bother if mourning and judgment are inevitable based on the scroll and the tone it sets? What good will his mission be if sin’s consequences (the upcoming exile of 586 BC) cannot be averted? Moreover, the passage makes clear the impossible nature of Ezekiel’s task given his audience’s level of receptivity. This is precisely the point. The impossible is made possible by God. God wants to get to the heart of the matter. Ezekiel 4–24 will illustrate what it looks like to have a hard heart and how God deals with hard hearts. He judges but also restores, as the rest of the book will reveal (Ezek 34–48). 

Ezekiel begins his active ministry among the exiles using “show and tell.” He himself is a visual aid or “sign” to the community (4:1–8; 12:6–17; 24:15–24; see Isa 20:3). As a living billboard, he engages his guilty rebellious audience. The nonverbal communication offers a means of persuasion given their faulty theology, hardness of heart, and lack of understanding about themselves and their current circumstances. Ezekiel’s first nonverbal communication has four parts reflecting the siege (24:1–3), famine, destruction, and its effects on the people of Jerusalem (4:1–5:4). Through his personal participation in God’s judgment, he identifies with them by “role playing” the city under siege (4:8). The fate of the city and people become his fate. An interpretation immediately follows to accompany his nonverbal methods in the event they might hear regardless of the spiritual impediments (5:5–17; 12:1–2). Similarly, when he loses his beloved wife, this painful experience represents a “sign” of the temple’s destruction (24:15–27). The fate of the city becomes his once again. 

4:1–5:4 The siege depicted. The “show” part of “show and tell” begins. By sketching Jerusalem on a brick and building a military model, Ezekiel portrays a mock siege for his show-and-tell ministry of the upcoming siege (4:1–3). Ezekiel’s physical posture shows he is bearing the weight of their sin (4:4–5) and bearing the experience of the Lord’s wrath as punishment (4:6) for the sins of the whole nation, sometimes designated “house of Israel” or “house of Judah” (4:4–8).¹⁵ His diet suggests the limitations of food that those under siege will experience (4:9–15). It shows that they will be forced to eat “contaminated” food due to living on idolatrous soil when scattered. As he cooks his food on cow dung, they will smell the stench of sin. In 5:1–4 Ezekiel’s grooming techniques suggest that only a small remnant of Israel will be spared of God’s judgment. Sadly, most will experience fire, sword, and the scattering of exile. God causes Ezekiel to feel the physical effect of sin (upcoming military siege) on his body and further smell its effects when Ezekiel burns some of his own cut hair (5:4). Thus, God asks Ezekiel to demonstrate and to bear in his body the guilt of the people’s sin.

Of the four elaborate visuals God requires of Ezekiel (a drawing, 4:1–3; a strange posture, 4:4–8; dietary restrictions, 4:9–15; and grooming requirements, 5:1–4), Ezekiel’s posture demands further comment (4:4–8). As a priest (1:3) Ezekiel must bear the weight of the nation’s sin (Exod 28:38; Num 18:1) by lying first on his left side for 390 days (roughly fourteen months). Each day here represents a year (cf., Ps 90:4; 2Pet 3:8). In this dramatization guilt gets quantified as 390 “years of their sin” (4:5). Since the guilt of the people is one of the main themes in the book, this first visual aid directly relates. As he does elsewhere, the prophet looks in the rearview mirror to recall their record of guilt (Ezek 20). He calculates backward 390 years from the fall of the city in 586 BC (following some commentators). Accordingly, he associates the starting point of their guilt with the completion of Solomon’s temple (1Kgs 8:10–11, about 976 BC). Thus, from temple completion to temple destruction the record shows the longevity of the guilt of successive generations; the prophet bears the weight of their guilt in this way. 

Then he must lay on his right side for forty days for the same reasons (4:6). Ezekiel now bears the weight of God’s wrath for sin, something quantified like the forty years of punishment experienced by the unbelieving, rebellious wilderness generation that provoked him to anger (Block, 179–80; Num 14:10–12, 20–35). Since the anger of God is also a dominant theme in the book, this aspect of the visual aid also directly relates. The themes of guilt and God’s anger merge in this first dramatization. God continues not to leave the guilty unpunished (Exod 34:7). The entire nation stands guilty. The sum of 430-day period where he is postured on his sides (roughly fifteen and a half months, not long given his twenty-year ministry) is secured and not subject to change because God guarantees it by binding Ezekiel with ropes “until you have finished the days of your siege” (4:8). As with the scroll incident, God sees to it that no adjustments to his plan of judgment are possible.

Although the prophet must dramatize sin in this way, it is hard to imagine how it looked in real time. The fact that he must prepare food with unusual ingredients amounting to a daily allotment equivalent to a cup, and drink no more than a pint of water (4:9–17; see NIV text notes on 4:10–11), assumes his actions do not require a non-stop demonstration but a periodic demonstration—one that would capture the attention and curiosity of his non-hearing audience. With this strange posture Ezekiel portrays their guilt and God’s anger. The “show” part of the “show and tell” regarding the siege is in place.

5:5–17 God the plaintiff against Jerusalem. The nations vs. Jerusalem. Now for the “tell” part of the “show and tell.” This section provides an interpretation of the visuals associated with the siege depicted in 4:1–5:4. The city under siege is clearly Jerusalem (5:5). It represents the first statement of judgment upon the city in the book. Ezekiel explains three key problems that reside in Jerusalem. First, the city did not realize its place and prominence among the nations (5:5). God assigned a special status to the city among the nations (Deut 12:1–28), and his sanctuary and name dwelled there (Ezek 5:11; 1Kgs 8:29). God chose for his people Israel and his earthly temple a place at the crossroads of the continents of Africa, Asia, and Europe (the center of the nations) so that his acts on their behalf might be visible to the nations. God also chose to dwell in Jerusalem (1Kgs 11:36; 2Kgs 21:4, 7; 2Chr 33:7). Regardless, Jerusalem did not choose God. Sadly, the nations look more obedient by comparison (5:5–6). Second, not only did she not measure up to the Lord’s standards, but the city also did not measure up to the nation’s standards for appropriate conduct (5:7–8). Third, the city housed terrible abominations, particularly observable in the Lord’s sanctuary (5:9–10). These specific temple abominations will come into focus later in the book (chs. 8–11). Thus, the special status of the city among the nations notwithstanding, God’s allegations and the serious damages in his legal complaint ring loud and clear. 

The house of Israel’s behavior provokes a personal and passionate confrontation with God. Accordingly, the theme of God’s anger takes center stage in this section. Several statements highlight Yahweh’s personal attention to the matter. First, Ezekiel’s audience learns something tragic. God himself is against Jerusalem (5:8, 7–10): “I, even I, am against you” (5:8). He will make his punishment visible to the nations (5:8) just as they made their riotous behavior visible to the nations. As outside observers the nations will see the scolding and dread that God places on the city (5:14–15). Not only here, but elsewhere as well, the audience gets short, shocking, and repeated reminders that HE is against them (13:8; 21:3; 26:3; 28:22; 29:3, 10; 30:22; 34:10; 35:3; 38:3; 39:1). The siege represents more than the Babylonians flexing their muscles westward. The second statement showing Yahweh’s personal attention to the matter, “I myself will shave you” (5:11a), promises an action intended/reserved for foreign nations (Isa 15:2; Jer 48:37). He will cause them to feel the effects of his negative visitation. Still another statement revealing personal attention to the matter concerns his own emotions: “I will not look on you with pity or spare you” (Ezek 5:11b). A cause-and-effect pattern prevails. Jerusalem has failed, will fall, and will experience unspeakable horrors threatened in the covenant (5:15–17; Lev 26:25–26, 29; Deut 28:53–57). This is what it looks like for God to be against Jerusalem. Thus, the personal nature of the confrontation surfaces with these statements.

The passionate nature of the confrontation is witnessed by the effects/outcome on the Lord. “I will satisfy myself” relative to his just judgment as Israel’s judge (5:13). This happens once God uses up his fury and wrath on deserving covenant breakers. Israel violated their relationship with God and tarnished his reputation. As he vents on Israel, he personally receives satisfaction, and his anger ceases. The latter leads to another effect/outcome for God: “they shall know that I am the Lord, that I have spoken in my jealousy when I spend my fury upon them” (5:13). Driven by passion for being recognized as the sovereign Lord and king, his judgment produces knowledge of him. Thus, he acts to regain that acknowledgement, another key theme in the book. The passionate nature of the confrontation finds further witness in Yahweh’s sealed oath and his unchangeable words. He promises by divine oath his unalterable intentions to bring about the siege and exile (5:11; 8:6). “As I live declares the Lord God . . . I will withdraw,” or perhaps “cut you down,” an aftershock worse than the unfathomable and sobering announcement in 5:8 that he is against them. In addition, three times Ezekiel declares, “I the Lord have spoken” (5:13, 15, 17), assuring that the various expressions of divine hostility and punishment for sin just outlined are not subject to change. The “show and tell” of this section makes it crystal clear that the upcoming siege on Jerusalem is justified. 

Guilty people who have broken God’s laws anger him. Accordingly, a deserving “death” penalty ensues. The punishment includes what sounds like vicious and inhumane treatment of Jerusalem (5:16–17), as do the threatened forces of judgment for covenant unfaithfulness found in Deuteronomy 32:22–25. Although the reader may be uneasy with such Bible verses, Ezekiel does not downplay God’s anger over sin. From a biblical-theological perspective, the outpouring and dispensing of God’s anger through the exile is a visual reality of what is to come when he spends his fury on Jesus at the cross. The cross shows us God’s anger being satisfied for sin and its consequences. The cross tells we are guilty before a holy God. God’s anger is personal and passionate. It shows us what it means for God to be against guilty people who break his Law, the opposite of Romans 8:31, “If God is for us”! Much like Ezekiel’s audience, we too need to be told and persuaded about the reality of God’s wrath. Faulty theologies and hardness of heart keep one from fully understanding sin’s consequences.

Operation Stormy Wind (1:4) continues. Chapters four and five that anticipate a final exile target Jerusalem proper (4:1–5:17). Now Ezekiel’s words and gestures earmark the “mountains of Israel” (6:1–14) and “the land of Israel” (7:1–27). With this geographical outlook, one sees the widespread devastation caused by sin, which parallels the widespread judgment of God. Through personification Ezekiel addresses inanimate places. God unsparingly hits these designated targets in a personal, direct, and passionate way. He must stop idolatry. He must correct their wrong beliefs about idolatry and its consequences too. Therefore, he announces the coming “end” “upon the four corners of the land” (7:2) in a manner that beckons one to listen and that strikes a panic. The end does not concern a distant day but an event with direct repercussions for the prophet’s audience. Will Ezekiel’s audience heed the imminent nature of the crisis? Will they recognize that with God against them he revokes their rights and privileges relative to the land? Through Ezekiel’s gestures and word pictures, God startles and alerts of the comprehensive nature of the end that awaits them. 

6:1–7 No mercy in the mountains. “Set your face against the mountains” (6:2). The Lord continues to express his negative sentiments about the behavior of his people through Ezekiel’s actions. Unlike the physical gestures that demonstrated the siege (4:1–5:5), “set your face” (6:2) offers a figurative portrait of God’s demeanor. It indicates God’s clear opposition (5:8). It shows his animosity and enmity suggestive of divine abandonment and alienation (4:3, 7; 14:8; 15:7; cf. Lev 17:10; 20:3, 5, 6; Jer 21:10; 44:11). His opposition targets the mountains specifically. From a landscape perspective, “mountains” refers to the central highlands. Through synecdoche, the part refers to the whole land, since 6:3 mentions hills, ravines, and valleys. He singles out the mountains. The Israelites often used the mountains to engage in idolatrous religious practices; thus, God opposes and promises to pummel these place of worship (Lev 26:30). 

The word Ezekiel uses for their worship objects carries weight. The term gillulim translated as “images” or “idols” likely carries a double meaning (Ezek 6:4, 5, 6 and elsewhere in the book, especially in chs. 20–23; e.g., 22:3–4; 23:7). It seems that, given its two different possible etymologies—“to be round” (characteristic of stones) and “excrement”—the word might suggest that God considers their worship aids as “dung pellets!” (Following Bodi, 481–510, 1993; Petter, 86). The offensive term mirrors the personal offense to God. He has a zero-tolerance policy for any competition. He opposes their objects of worship.¹⁶

Accordingly, he resists and speaks directly to the mountains with a scathing response for the vile idolatry practiced there: “I am about to bring a sword against you” (6:3). God’s strong disdain causes him to bring destruction to these places and their objects of worship (6:4) through the “sword,” a metaphor for warfare. Through use of the first-person pronoun “I” five times, (6:3 [2x], 4, 5 [2x]), he emphasizes the personal attention he gives to the situation. Behind the military agency of the Babylonians, the Lord will personally demolish the illegitimate cult sites and all things associated with them. Many Israelite worshippers will fall victim to the divine wrath (6:3–7). What they thought so powerful God renders impotent (cf. Isa 40–48). One must not miss the irony in God’s resistance and opposition described here. God gave a directive to his people prior to their entrance into Canaan. He commanded utter destruction of the people of the land and their places and objects of worship, evidenced by the statement “show them no mercy” (Deut 7:2, 5)! The irony? Hundreds of years later, God shows no mercy to his own people. He himself must deal with the “Canaanization” of Israel in the same manner he prescribed for Israel before they entered the land (Josh 11; Judg 3:1–6). This provides a prelude for what lies ahead. Later, God will wreck another object of their worship, HIS temple ornamented with their idolatry (Ezek 24:15ff). God’s no mercy in the mountains mandate more than makes up for what the Israelites failed to do. Yet even in this strong expression of wrath, his mercy emerges. 

6:8 –10 Some mercy emerges. “But I will spare some” (6:8). God will allow some to escape the sword for his sovereign purposes. Complete annihilation will not happen. The escapees represent God’s grace and evidence of the promised remnant (5:3). Those who escape will be particularly aware of the grief they caused the Lord. This “grace” will help them to remember him and to recommit their lives to Yahweh. Israel acted like an unfaithful marriage partner by giving affection to someone/thing other than the Lord (cf. 16:1–63; 23:1–49). The Lord shares his heart about their adulterous hearts: “I have been grieved” (6:9). His personal and positive sentiments also surface about the relationship. God is not an angry deity shaking his finger at any would-be transgressor. His heart breaks over the rift. By his own admission he deems himself, “a God gracious and merciful” (Exod 34:6). This “grace” will also help those who escape the sword to possess a healthy self-awareness and not think of themselves more highly than they ought. It will cause them to consider their own heart posture and grieve. It will cause them also to despise themselves for their wrong behavior (see Ezek 20:43; 36:31). Those who survive the divine sword, through no merit of their own, will acknowledge how poorly God was treated in the relationship. Accordingly, the escapees will comprehend the justness of God’s actions and come to know God’s strong character in a fresh way (6:8–10). 

The emergence of mercy amidst judgment, a theme already introduced in Ezekiel’s actions of tucking a few hairs away in his garment (5:3; so too 7:16; 11:16–21; 14:22–23; 16:60), will echo particularly in the latter half of the book (chs. 34–48; cf. Lev 26:40–45; Rom 9:27; 11:5). The picture of restoration that surfaces in Ezekiel boggles the mind. The emphasis lies with the Lord and his initiative. He intends to get to their hearts in the restoration process. Accordingly, his no-merit mercy policy will melt their hearts. They will not be able to resist him or the restoration he offers. But in the meantime, they will not be able to resist his judgment. They are to prepare for death and mourning, not life, a point made explicit by Ezekiel’s second commanded gesture.

6:11–14 No mercy from south to north. “Strike your hands together and stamp your feet and cry out ‘Alas!’” (6:11) represents the second gesture required of Ezekiel in this section (cf. 6:2). The three physical actions mirror God’s mournful anger over their evil (6:9; 21:14, 17; 22:13). Accordingly, God’s wrath comes near “wherever you/they live” (6:6, 14) and reaches out to “one who is far away” (6:12). It stretches from “the desert to Diblah,” or from the southern border of the Negev to the northern border of Israel in Hamath (6:12, 14).¹⁷ The length of his wrath meets the length of their idolatry. As a result, acknowledgement of God’s character and reputation will ripple throughout the surviving community. It re-establishes his name recognition amongst his own people (6:7, 10, 13, 14), God’s repeated and main goal when he judges Israel. Guilty people come face to face with a God who by no means clears the guilty (Exod 34:7).

7:1–27: The end of the land (’adamah). After speaking to the mountains, Ezekiel’s next address pertains to another geographical marker, “the land of Israel” (7:2), a designation unique to Ezekiel (cf. 11:17; 12:19, 22). The term ’adamah (rather than the typical ’erets) used here for the nation refers to the health and economic well-being of the people (following Block, 248). Chapter 7 announces the land’s “end” (7:2, 3, 6, 24) as an unleashing (7:3) and outpouring (7:8) of God’s anger on the whole crowd (7:12, 13,14), judging and repaying them for misconduct (cf. 9:8; 14:14; 20:8, 13, 21; 22:31; 30:15; 36:18). The end described concerns the final blow to Jerusalem in 586 BC by the Babylonians. 

7:1–9 The widespread and imminent end. The announcement of “the end” for the city reaches the reader five times in the first six verses (7:2 [2x], 3, 6 [2x]). The repetition communicates urgency and perhaps suggests the imminent nature of the end. The repetition creates a strong emotional reaction. The audience must take the statements seriously. Time is not on their side, contrary to the announcements of some false prophets (13:1–23) and their wrong understanding of the “end times” (see 12:22–28). Disaster strikes at the very place where an Israelite would find their national identity, where one finds security and well-being, “the four corners of the land!” (7:2, emphasis mine). Moreover, with the mention of “four corners,” one is to expect that everything in between those corners (namely, all cities and towns in Judah) will not escape the devastation (7:2). The term “four corners” expresses totality, an idiomatic way of communicating “the whole land.” The imagery suggests that no place is beyond his judgment (cf. Rev 6:12–17).

Ezekiel offers three main reasons in chapter 7 for the inescapable end. The first reason escape from this dreadful end remains impossible pertains to a change of God’s gaze from merciful to merciless (7:4, 9): “I will not look on you with pity” (7:4, 9; cf. 5:12). His watchful eye that typically extends pity will not do so now (cf. Exod 2:23–25). To carry out the consequences for sin requires withholding mercy, another aspect of God’s character. When God revealed himself to Moses, he made himself known as a deity who, although gracious and merciful, would not let the guilty go unpunished (Exod 34:5–7). He makes good on this now. The second reason escape remains impossible concerns the agent of destruction, the Lord himself: “I, the Lord who strikes you” (Ezek 7:9). The action recalls God striking Egypt and the unbelieving Pharaoh by plagues (cf. Exod 9:15; 3:20). God’s patience with stubborn people reaches a limit. Again, this represents another statement personalizing the strike that leads to the events of 586 BC. The third reason escape remains impossible finds coverage in the next section.

7:10–27 The inescapable “day” enabled by God. “See, the day!” “See, it comes”! The repeated phrase provides another notification of the end. Such a dreadful day remains inescapable because God enables it by leaving his earthly home. Embedded in this section is the third reason people will not experience safety: “I will turn my face away from the people, and robbers will desecrate the place I treasure. They will enter it and will defile it” (7:22). The replacement of the word “day” for “end” reflects something more specific (7:10). Ezekiel’s prophetic predecessors spoke of such a day as an outpouring of God’s wrath reserved for God’s enemies (cf. Amos, Isaiah) and warned of such a day for Israel. Ezekiel’s audience anticipated such a day, but not for them! Here the “day of the Lord” refers to a total and complete outpouring of God’s wrath on his own people who, like the enemy, resist him (7:7, 10, 12, 19). Rather than a day when people experience God’s goodness (Amos 5:18–20), they experience death and act as those in mourning (Ezek 7:18; Gen 37:34; Job 1:20; Isa 15:2; Rev 11:3). People will experience his judgment and justice as a time of “doom” (7:19), “violence” (7:11), “calamity,” and “rumor” (7:26). They will feel the effects economically and emotionally (7:12–18), religiously (7:19–24), and politically (7:25–27). Guidance from God through the expected means of prophet, priest, and elder will not exist (see 1Sam 28:6; Amos 8:11–12 and note on 8:11; Mic 3:6–7; see also Jer 18:18 and note). Even Judah’s exiled king, also called prince, Jehoiachin, will mourn (7:26–27). Thus, three reasons prevail for the inescapable “end” and “day” that Ezekiel predicts. Without the gaze of his divine mercy or the immediacy of his presence (Deut 28:63ff), the Lord strikes, and no hope nor safety obtains.

Like turning to the last chapter to see the conclusion of a book, Ezekiel gives the end of the story from the beginning. Because there is no end to their idolatry, God forces an end. He balances the scales with his response as a just judge (7:3, 4, 8, 9, 27). He readily reveals his personal, direct, and passionate response to sin. The point of knowing the end from the beginning relative to the land offers a clear communication. Regardless of the promises made to their forebears, no geographical space or place is beyond God’s judgment. He graciously gives, but he also takes away (cf. Job 1:21). This keeps an attitude of entitlement in check as well as one’s lifestyle. For us, too, sin’s consequences are experienced now (Rom 1:18–22; 7:7ff) but have come to an end because of the cross. The cross is God’s personal, direct, and passionate solution to idolatry. Those who look to the cross escape the end of sin and the consequences associated with idolatry. But the “end” is also not yet. We await the eschatological event with The Day of the Lord. A day when he brings THE end, when his wrath is revealed, real, and far-reaching against all sin (1Thes 5:1–11; 2Thes 2:1–12; Rom 1:18–32). Thus, between the cross and consummation, we need to pay attention to attitudes about the promises of God and maintain a God-fearing lifestyle. Those who have not found safety through Jesus will not escape their “end” on this “day” that God’s promises in the future.

Violations in Jerusalem, the mountains, and the entire land with its “end” in view (chs. 5–7) give way to violations in the temple and its end in Ezekiel’s second vision report (chs. 8–11). God now targets the temple. This locale amplifies the personal nature of idolatry and its hurtful impact on the Lord. God’s people wronged him in the relationship, and the vision illustrates their offensive ways most fully. Not only did their hardness of heart translate into building images and idols of worship in undesignated places of worship according to biblical Law (6:1–7), but this vision makes clear how their hardness also translates into building images and idols of worship in THE designated place of worship, Yahweh’s temple (8:1–18). The vision shows the truth of God’s previous accusations (5:11) by taking Ezekiel to God’s Jerusalem residence as tangible evidence (8:1–18). This section zooms in on specific violations only briefly noted prior (5:7, 11; 6:1–7; 7:22). It drives home what idolatry looks like and offers the material evidence of their ongoing and escalating guilt, something that enrages the Lord and provokes him to anger (8:18). 

Accordingly, Yahweh’s zero-tolerance policy calls for what amounts to the execution of those who do not mourn nor grieve over sin in Jerusalem (9:4), the raining down of fire on the city (10:7), and holding those in leadership accountable (11:1–4). But tragically this zero-tolerance policy results in his departure from the temple, something he threatened would happen (7:22). His departure ushers in the real end for the temple, city, and people as they now know it (chs. 10–11, esp. 11:22–23). Without the divine presence, there is no hope for the people of God. The fact that God will leave the temple consequently explains his ominous and unexpected appearance in Babylon, outside his usual dwelling. In fact, his departure causes Operation Stormy Wind (1:4) to get underway. 

8:1–4 Background to the temple “field trip.” Before the journey begins to the Jerusalem temple (8:5–18), Ezekiel provides some important background information (8:1–4). His first-person report ushers his audience directly into his experience. Once again, he experiences the supernatural, now a year since his first encounter (cf. 1:1–3). This time it unfolds at home, in the middle of everyday life. The “elders,” a designated group of leaders in the exiled community, make a house call in search of a word from God from the stay-at-home prophet (3:25). Given that the vision concerns the temple and God’s departure from both the temple and city, the elders likely had theological concerns about the presence of God. Likewise, due to various elements within the vision, they may have wanted to know some specifics. Is God blind to the people in Jerusalem (8:12)? Has he abandoned them (8:12)? Will God still hear prayers (8:18)? Is the Jerusalem leadership correct in their assessment of the situation (11:3)? Are we as exiles excluded from God’s promises (11:15)? These types of concerns occupied the minds of Ezekiel’s audience, which prompted the visit from the leaders. Ezekiel will receive two more house calls from these folks with further inquiries (14:3; 20:1). 

As part of the background to the field trip, he needs to clarify the encounter. Lest his immediate hearers (the elders and exiles who will soon hear about his vision, 8:1; 11:25) and those who later learn of his vision think of him as crazy (and plenty of commentators have suggested this!), he puts the event in the realm of the supernatural. The prophet speaks of his acute awareness of God’s overshadowing power on his life. He hovers between two realities. While physically with the elders at his house in Babylon he sees things spiritually in Jerusalem. He describes it as a “between earth and heaven” experience. A spirit (a divine wind) transports Ezekiel from exile (8:1) to the Jerusalem temple (8:3). When he arrives at the temple entrance, two opposing images capture his attention: “The seat of the image of jealousy” (8:3) and “the glory of the God of Israel” with his seat of his sovereignty on earth (8:4), perhaps flanking the temple entrance. The “glory” represents God’s presence, something he saw twice before in the plain and down by the river (3:22–23; 1:28). Now in this vision, he can safely identify the appearance as Israel’s God. After clarifying the time, context, and background to his experience, Ezekiel reports the specifics of what he sees on the field trip. 

8:5–6 Let the field trip begin: Competition with the true temple owner. At the outset of the field trip, the tension commences through competition. Ezekiel sees a scandalous image (a statue) that not only occupies a seat in the Jerusalem temple (8:4), but the image’s specific place of prominence alarms as well. The intruder guards the entrance to the sanctuary (one that guards the door to the bedroom). The idol or “image” intrudes on the Lord’s property. Ownership and sovereignty of the temple belong to “the God of Israel,” something made clear in the vision through the repeated designation “the glory of the God of Israel.” Although anonymous and undefined, the competition deeply offends God, as evidenced by the description “The image of jealousy that provokes to jealousy” (8:3). The focus pertains to the divine outrage this image provoked rather than specifically identifying the image. This “idol” with which the people have associated themselves has caused a serious rift in their relationship with God; God is a jealous God and will not share his glory with another (Exod 20:5; Isa 48:11). The competition reflects a sad reality. God’s people have not continued to acknowledge that “there is no other” (Deut 4:32–40). Although plenty atrocious, God braces Ezekiel for more scandalous intrusions within the Lord’s property (8:6, 13, 15). Along with the image of jealousy (8:5–6), the escort spotlights three groups of people involved in detestable practices (8:7–18).

8:7–13 Elders blinded by wrong theology. First, Ezekiel witnesses the flagrant activity of seventy Jerusalem elders with a ringleader named Jaazaniah, someone known to Ezekiel (8:7–13; cf. 2Kgs 22:8–10; Jer 26:24). Their belief system about God directly impacted their actions and (and in their view) justified their conduct at the same time. They charge God on two accounts: he does not see, and he has abandoned them (8:12). God’s blindness relates to a lack of action and compassion, the opposite experience of the exodus generation (Exod 2:23–25). The blindness explains the perception of God’s abandonment and his lack of involvement in their current circumstances. Given the Babylonian invasions (606 BC and 597 BC), they would have understood that the powerful Babylonian gods defeated the weak Israelite God, driving him away from his land. So why bother to live right? Why not dare to go into places where only priests tread? Why not do the unthinkable and burn incense to their vile images in the hope of soliciting help from animal spirits against God’s wrath (Num 16:47–48)? Ironically, they are the blind ones and those who have forsaken Yahweh. Ironically, he does see! The vision given to Ezekiel offers proof. Moreover, his presence still resides with them. Blinded by wrong theology, the vision reveals the elders take matters into their own hands (cf. 2Kgs 23:31–35). No doubt when Ezekiel reports this part of the vision to his house guests, the elders, it immediately places them on notice. 

8:14–15 Women weeping for the wrong reasons and the wrong god. Second, Ezekiel witnesses the abhorrent activity of a group of women. It concerns women weeping for Tammuz (8:14–15, more literally “weeping the Tammuz”). Tammuz represents the Hebrew spelling of Dumuzi, the dying and rising Sumerian-Babylonian god. His followers mourned his death, which supposedly happened seasonally at the height of the summer heat and which they thought caused the annual summer’s end of vegetation. The mention of this god may mean that the women were equating the Lord with Tammuz. Like Tammuz, Yahweh abandoned them, a point consistent with the elders’ charge about the Lord (cf. 8:12). Or the activity of the women might suggest a religious syncretism. An adaption of the Tammuz ritual was taking place in the Lord’s temple (following Block, 295). Either way, these women, too, had a wrong theology.

8:16–18 Twenty-five men with wrong posture. Third, Ezekiel witnesses the appalling activity of twenty-five men. Their location between the porch and altar, at the entrance of the temple, signifies something serious. At a sacred place reserved for priests—the very entrance to the Holy Place—these men venerate the sun. They turn their backs on the holy place of the temple, which the law prohibits (cf. Deut 4:19; 17:3; 2Kgs 23:5, 11). Worshiping the sun as it rose required people to turn their backs to the temple because ancient temples faced east. This group offers worship to the wrong deity likely because they, too, figured that the Lord had already abandoned his temple. 

Thus, a total of four sets of outrageous things unfolds before Ezekiel’s eyes: the image of jealousy, the seventy elders, the weeping women, and the twenty-five men. Mixed with worship of Yahweh, one finds elements of Canaanite, Babylonian, and Egyptian practices all in the house of the Lord, not to mention social injustices (8:17). All these activities suggest a derision, “they put the branch to their nose,” which provokes the Lord to anger (8:17–18). In a manner of speaking, God has hardened himself against them (8:18; no sparing and no pity). It is another reminder that no second chance awaits them (see 5:11; 7:4, 9; 9:10). There is no break for these covenant breakers. God’s anger, one of the five main themes in the book, surfaces in chapter 8, as the behavior it describes has justifiably angered God. The vision of the temple horrors emphasizes “seeing” all throughout. Both God and Ezekiel function as witnesses. As king and judge, a strong and undeniable case for judging guilty people surfaces. As the Lord shows Ezekiel all these detestable practices, stage by stage, a tension builds in the vision. Although they cry in his ears with a loud voice, he will not hear them. Should they pray, they will do so under the assumption that God will hear their pleas while they are living in sin, showing the height of their deception. God assures them of unanswered prayers. Prayer won’t work at this point (8:18). Although God does not admit to blindness, he does admit to a deafness. 

9:1–11:28 The temple owner’s response. As the vision continues, Ezekiel hears how the true temple owner intends to deal with the people’s preference for a more “inclusive” worship style (8:5–18). Yahweh’s zero-tolerance policy unfolds. Since the competition, “the image that provokes to jealousy,” won’t leave, Yahweh will leave. In fact, his four-staged departure corresponds to the four stages of the abominations Ezekiel sees. But before his official departure from the temple and city (11:22–23), which is his ultimate response, the temple owner “cleans house” with a citywide slaughter of the idolaters.

9:1–11 Show them no mercy. In this part of the vision Ezekiel hears an unnerving conversation about executions to take place in the city. What he witnesses corresponds to the Lord’s no-pity promise/policy he has just articulated (8:18). It vividly shows the Lord’s intentions: “I will deal with them in anger” (8:18). The executioners must seek out and kill those who do not mourn for sin (9:4). The lack of moaning and groaning over sin would signal no evidence of a heart change; the Lord was after changed hearts. Amid showing them no mercy, however, the role of the man clothed in linen balances this harshness for those questioning God’s fairness and justice. The linen garment helps set him apart more specifically than the “six men” as a heavenly attendant, one associated with righteousness (44:17–18; cf. Dan 12:6–7; Rev 19:8, 14). God does desire life, not death! The man’s “writing case” contains pen and ink for marking people with an X-like sign (or taw, the last letter of Hebrew alphabet). The X marks those who sigh and groan over all the abominations in the city (9:4, 6; elsewhere only in Job 31:35). The purpose of the mark spares people from execution (cf. Rev 7:2–8) because they grieve over sin. The placement of the “mark” on the forehead represents an unmistakable visual aid that preserves a remnant for God. The meaning of the mark seems to concern ownership (so too Block, but for different reasons, 307). Given that Yahweh communicates his ownership of the building in the first part of the vision (8:1–4), it follows that he reclaims ownership of his own people with this mark. 

The merciless killing targets all guilty parties, even the weak and vulnerable (9:5–6). In this way God achieves a thorough, indiscriminate means in the judgment process. The merciless killing together with the first mention of the movement of God’s glory to the doorway of the temple notifies Ezekiel of more unnerving news (9:3). God begins to remove himself slowly, maybe even reluctantly, from his earthly home as promised (8:6). Ezekiel will witness God’s full removal of himself as the vision unfolds. Until then, the executions get underway. The first to experience God’s wrath are the leaders who have done detestable things at God’s “sanctuary” (9:6a; cf. 8:11, 16). Once executed, the dead bodies of the slain will be strewn in the temple’s court rather than given a dignified burial (cf. 6:4–5, 13). In this way, the Lord adds to the defilements already present in the temple (8:4–18). This judgment does not take place literally, but what Ezekiel sees anticipates the upcoming brutality of the Babylonian invasion in 586 BC. Nevertheless, the executions cause Ezekiel to cry out to God for mercy and to spare some.

As a mourner, Ezekiel does what those with the mark in Jerusalem were supposed to. He does what his hardened audience cannot do (cf. 11:13). It reveals something of the prophet’s character. By contrast with these hardened people, God hears Ezekiel’s cries and responds immediately but with a reinforcement of his no-pity policy (8:18). Ezekiel’s mourning role becomes evident here. He prostrates himself and utilizes words associated with mourning and grief. It is not, however, a time for mercy but God’s just judgment. Now the Lord really will forsake the land and turn a blind eye by withholding pity (9:9; cf. 8:13). The people, land, and city will experience divine abandonment. On account of the man in linen’s task, some were likely spared, but the vision does not specify (cf. 5:3; Ezra 2). Instead, it focuses on the realities and justness of God’s actions carried out through the six men (cf. Ezek 16:43; Jer 50:15). Guilty people are getting what they deserve. The vision shows what it looks like for Ezekiel and his audience to come face to face with a God who will by no means clear the guilty (Exod 34:7). The inability to admit their guilt and wrong perceptions about God continue to surface, blinding them from the truth visualized in the vision! 

10:1–22 Show them no mercy: Burn the city and watch God depart. God’s no-pity policy continues in earnest. His itinerant throne chariot reappears to Ezekiel, and the cherubim feature prominent like the opening vision (1:4–28). The task of the man in linen continues, but now he works in tandem with the cherubim. The cherubim provide the man in linen with the fire, presumably to hurl onto the city (10:6–8), even though no report exists that he did so. The image of these attendants (man in linen and cherubim) suggests that only heavenly authorities possess the right to dispense and enact judgment or mercy (contrast 9:3–4). Judgment derives from God alone, his seat of sovereignty. But the cherubim’s assistance also pertains to the judgment they provide by moving the Lord out of his earthly home. Tragically, they provide taxi service for him as he makes his way around and out of the temple complex (9:3; 10:18; 11:22–23). 

With the arrival of the glory of the Lord at the entrance of the east gate of the Lord’s house, Ezekiel connects the dots. He realizes (10:15, 20) that the cherubim he now sees were the same as the “living creatures” in the opening vision (1:5–9). The first experience of the supernatural helps him to understand the second one. More importantly, the arrival of God’s glory outside of the Holy of Holies, at the temple’s entrance, indicates the next phase of judgment. The cloud that enclosed the “glory of the LORD” (10:4), filled the inner court of the temple with brightness (10:3). The “cloud” was a visual manifestation of the divine presence: God in Israel’s midst, the greatest of covenantal blessings that reflected his favor (Exod 40:34–35, 38; 1Kgs 8:10–12). While in the wilderness the cloud provided Israel with guidance (Num 9:15–16; 16:42), here, and in stark contrast, the cloud of God’s brilliant presence prepares for departure. Divine abandonment represents the greatest of covenantal curses, a billboard shouting his disfavor.

11:1–13 Merciless leaders who murder. Now both the prophet (11:1–2) and the Presence (10:19) meet up at the inner court. One expects to hear of God’s departure from the city based on his most recent movement in 10:19. But before God leaves (11:22–23), the spotlight shines on the leaders once again (cf. 8:11–12, 16). God calls out two more men known to Ezekiel (see also 8:11). This time, however, rather than confront worship violations, he speaks of ethical violations only briefly noted prior (8:17; 9:9). He also addresses their false security about living in the city. With respect to the latter, Jaazaniah and Benaiah play politics. These men give wicked counsel (two of the twenty-five leaders in 8:16). They falsify the facts about the city’s safety. Their political ideology suggests that as meat belongs in a pot, they too belong in Jerusalem and are safe. The city is theirs (11:15). It cannot be taken away because God made an ironclad promise. This reveals the theology of Jerusalem’s current leaders, which is way off base (11:4). 

God calls out these leaders, too, with respect to ethical violations. Just as the people filled the land with violence (8:17), and the idolators filled the temple with violations (8:4–18), these leaders have “filled its streets with the dead” (12:6–7). They have taken their craft to the city’s streets through misuse of power, a conformity like the surrounding nations (11:12). The meat in the pot, redefined by the prophet, is not the leaders in Jerusalem (who will be driven out of it) but the innocent people they killed (11:7). Accordingly, the sword will fall upon the leaders. As a further visual of this reality, Pelatiah, son of Benaiah, dies. The sudden death of this political leader twice mentioned (11:1, 13) tangibly evidences that God will judge the people of the city. No doubt this shocking scene causes Ezekiel to cry out, Show us mercy, please! His response to Pelatiah’s death parallels the prophet’s response to the deaths carried out by the man in linen earlier in the vision (9:8). Both outbursts coincide with his mourning role established at his call (3:3, 15). He pleads mercy for the remnant of Israel (see also 5:3; 6:9). At this point it does look like Yahweh’s desire to wipe out the remnant seems evident. The question of extinction lingers in the mind of Ezekiel: “Will you completely destroy the remnant of Israel (11:13)?

11:14–21 A remnant will receive mercy: Out of death life comes. God answers the prophet’s plea for mercy in the affirmative for a remnant (11:13). Yes, Ezekiel, a future awaits the remnant! God speaks to Ezekiel’s concerns by addressing a wrongful theological boast of Jerusalem’s current residents. The latter think of themselves as more privileged than those in Babylon because they still reside in Jerusalem. The people of Jerusalem arrogantly and self-confidently thought the presence and promises of God excluded the exiles. God’s corrective to the residents of Jerusalem (11:15), his answer to Ezekiel’s prayers (9:8; 11:13), and encouragement to the exiles comes through an amazing set of statements (11:16–21). First, God did not abandon the exiles even though they were driven away from Jerusalem and the temple (the symbol of God’s presence). The real sanctuary concerns a person, not a symbolic place or building, a point already emphasized (1:26). His presence manifested itself to them through the prophetic word of Ezekiel and others; thus, he redefines presence and absence and the nature of the relationship. Second, at an undefined time in the future, and at God’s initiative, they should expect a regathering and a return to the land emptied of their idolatry. Third, they should expect a better relationship, too, because God will heal their hard, rebellious, divided hearts. Due to a spiritual heart transplant performed by God, they experience a lifestyle transformation. A single-minded commitment will mark the relationship, which will produce a faithfulness never seen before (see 36:26). Finally, because of all of this, an exclusive and possessive relationship will result: “they shall be my people, and I will be their God (11:20). The goal of God’s covenantal promise pertains to relationship (see Exod 6:2–8; Jer 7:23; Zech 8:8; cf. Gen 17). Therefore, the exiled population, “the remnant of Israel” (11:13), will return to the land. They will be cleansed and become the new people of God. Although a return to the land does take place in 539 BC, the elements spoken of here do not correspond to that historical period. Accordingly, the rich realities outlined in God’s response to Ezekiel will emerge with the New Covenant in Christ (Jer 31:31–34; Heb 8:8–13; 10:16–18; see 2Cor 3:3). Ironically, those facing death in exile will experience life. Not only do these statements correct the faulty theology of the present inhabitants of Jerusalem about the land, but they also answers Ezekiel’s mourning cry (11:13). God will not destroy all the remnant of Israel! In wrath God will remember mercy (Hab 3:2).

11:22–25 God leaves the building. After Ezekiel receives reassurance that a future does exist for the people of God (11:14–21), the vision ends on a tragic note with the Lord’s departure from the city. The theme of divine abandonment frames the vision. At the outset God told Ezekiel that their inclusive worship practices “will drive me far from my sanctuary” (8:6). Prior to this he threatened, “I will turn my face away from the people” (7:22). And prior to this in Pentateuchal Law, he promised as a covenantal curse that he would hide his face from his people because they turned to other gods (Deut 31:17–18). Now, as the vision draws to a close, God makes good on that promise. The throne chariot flies away (11:22), and Ezekiel sees the “glory” position itself on a mountain east of the city limits (11:23). 

God’s glory departs slowly and perhaps reluctantly in four stages (9:3; 10:4, 19; 11:22–23), which matches the four sets of abominations Ezekiel sees (8:3, 7, 14, 16). When God’s people sin, he is present. Not only does he see sin, but it happens in his presence. There are no such thing as secret sins (cf. Prov 15:3; 2Chron 16:9). The “glory” “flies” from the ark of the covenant (the Holy of Holies, the seat of his earthly throne) to the temple’s entrance (east gate), then it moves out of the temple to the east gate, the very edge of the temple complex (outer court gate), where it stops (10:4, 18–19). The glory then positions itself to leave the city, on the mountain in the east (9:3; 10:4, 19; 11:22–23). Due to the movement of the cherubim taxiing the “glory” throughout the vision, the departure resembles the avian-like nature of a bird. This movement provides a stunning reversal of when the glory of the Lord filled the temple at its dedication in the time of Solomon (1Kgs 8:10; cf. Exod 40:35). After seeing and hearing the Lord’s departure in this way, Ezekiel’s “between earth and heaven” experience ends. The Lord brings Ezekiel back to earth! He shares everything with the elders at his house (8:1) and with the exiles (11:25).

When Ezekiel reports this vision to the hardened elders and exiles, one can only imagine their response (11:25). The implications of divine abandonment are significant. They knew from God’s Law and his actions in the past that the removal of his presence equates to the curse of death. The concept of divine abandonment in the Bible and in the ancient Near East implied loss of favor, guidance, protection, peace, and rest. It entailed losses at the personal and national levels. The vision of abandonment provides proof of the genuine rift in the relationship. It offers clear communication that God will by no means clear the guilty. Abandonment as an expression of God’s anger represents the culmination of how God deals with hard, rebellious hearts.

Through the temple violations, Ezekiel 8–11 shows and unpacks in a more extensive way the causes for destruction already mentioned in chapters 4–7. A progression unfolds in chapters. 4–11 as it relates to descriptions of destruction. The city, its environs, the land, the people, and the temple are polluted. Thus, as a larger unit, Ezekiel 4–11 shows the scope and totality of causes and consequences for the devastation. The specific vision in chapters 8–11 provides a theological interpretation for the fall of Jerusalem and functions as a key literary unit. It weaves together the five main themes of the book (see Introduction). Guilty people anger God, and as an expression of his anger, he leaves. It offers a corrective to assumptions about God’s character (unjust) and their self-perceptions (entitled). Although he uses the Babylonians on the international political landscape, he himself is the agent of destruction who brings about Jerusalem’s fall. Ezekiel 39:23–24, verses that summarize the book, capture this reality: “The people of Israel went into exile for their sin, because they were unfaithful to me. So I hid my face from them and handed them over to their enemies, and they all fell by the sword. I dealt with them according to their uncleanness and their offenses, and I hid my face from them.” The prophet reminds elsewhere who destroyed the city: “The vision I saw was like the vision I had seen when ‘he’ came to destroy the city” (43:3). “They defiled my holy name by their detestable practices. So, I destroyed them in my anger” (43:8). Operation Stormy Wind has reached its targets. But more specific targets are in view, as the ensuing chapters in the book will demonstrate.

From a biblical-theological perspective, Ezekiel 8–11 represents a tragic and vivid visual of how God deals with guilty people. Folks who continually break his holy law are numb to it and cannot grieve; as a result, they will pay a heavy price. In his righteous anger, he condemns them to death. Death happens due to divine abandonment. At the cross, Jesus experiences death due to divine abandonment of the Father; a reality echoed in his cry, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (Matt 27:46; Mark 15:34; cf. Ps 22:1). The wages of sin IS death (Rom 6:23). Is it any wonder that at his crucifixion Jesus insists that the mourning women mourn for themselves rather than for him (Luke 23:27–30; John 11:35)? Serious pastoral reflection is needed when one considers the ramifications for those of us on this side of the cross. Unspeakable gratitude should flow from our hearts that Jesus’s death occurred instead of ours. In addition, because of faith in Christ, we don’t ultimately receive this death sentence (1Cor 15; John 5; 3:16). Is our worship of the Lord compromised with competing elements? Do we always maintain an exclusive relationship with the Lord? As temples of the Holy Spirit, he resides in us, and we are his property and possession (1Cor 6:19). We belong to God (1Pet 2:9) and should not provoke him to jealousy with religious compromise (1Cor 10:22). 

Since the locale of our worship does not concern brick and mortar, it is hard to understand both the abominations and the divine outrage described in the temple vision. The following “story” helps to illustrate. Suppose you pull up to your house and see a strange vehicle parked in your spot? Clearly not the repairman. Hmm? As you enter your yard from the walkway and approach the door to the house, you see a beautiful bouquet of flowers on the entrance way table. Next you see candles burning and hear soft romantic music playing in the hallway, and upon opening the bedroom door you see the back of your spouse embraced by the arms of another lover. Imagine how violated you would feel to see this in your own home. Imagine the outrage! You would leave too.

Upon returning to his fellow exiles in body, mind, and spirit from his second visionary experience (11:24–25), the “word of the Lord” comes to Ezekiel four times. These four words provide logical literary units to the chapter (12:1–16; 12:17–20; 12:21–25; 12:26–28). Previously, Operation Stormy Wind (1:4) targeted the temple (chs. 8–11), the entire land (chs. 6–7), and the city (chs. 4–5). Now for the first time Ezekiel targets the fate of an individual relative to the exile. Through two more rounds of show and tell (cf. chs. 4–5), Ezekiel visualizes King Zedekiah’s exit from the city in 586 BC (12:1–16) as well as the angst of those still there (12:17–20). God also assures an end to the rumor mill and promises that judgment day does lie ahead (12:21–28).

12:1–7 Word #1: Packed and ready to go. The first “word of the Lord” commences with a reminder about the rebellious character of Ezekiel’s audience (12:1–2, 3, 9; cf. chs. 2–3). While this is not new information, here God connects their rebellion with a spiritual blindness not previously mentioned (12:2 [2x], 3, 9, 25) and a deafness only briefly noted (2:5, 7; 3:6–7). He describes their malaise as defective eyes and ears (12:2, 3, 9, 22, 27; cf. Isa 6:9; 43:8; Jer 5:21). Given the nature of what God commands Ezekiel to do, all eyes are on the prophet. In broad daylight (12:3, 4) they are “watching” every move Ezekiel makes (12:3, 4). So too, in the evening (12:4) they are “watching” him (12:4, 5, 7). As he packs his bag, digs through a wall, and blinds his face, he communicates and shows them about the destiny of King Zedekiah and what remains of the country. In what follows he provides clarity.

12:8–16 Meaning of packed and ready to go. Clearly, seeing does not equate to perceiving. As he packs his bag, digs through a wall, and blinds his face (12:6), they physically see him but remain spiritually clueless (12:9). The irony of the suitcase “sign” (12:6, 11; so too 24:24, 27) seems apparent. God responds with clarity to the question they posed to Ezekiel, “What are you doing?” He tells them the answer. King and country—to captivity they will go! The Babylonians installed King Zedekiah, Judah’s last ruler, as a puppet king prior to 597 BC. Zedekiah’s rebellion against Babylon’s rule (2Kgs 25:1; 2Chr 36:12–13) provokes his downfall. He rebelled, however, against the word of God delivered through Jeremiah. This demonstrated his stiff-necked and hardened nature. They captured him, killed his sons before him, gouged out his eyes, and took him blind into Babylon, where he died (2Kgs 25:6–7). Ezekiel’s suitcase sign tells of the end for the “prince” (12:10) in very specific terms. Ezekiel’s suitcase sign also tells that Babylon will carry off the remaining Israelites, which signals (12:6,11) the “end times” for Judah as an independent state. Ezekiel has already spoken of the end for the city (chs. 4–5), land (chs. 6–7), and temple (chs. 8–11). Now he speaks about the end of kingship as they know it. This dashes any sense of hope or pride in what they thought invincible. Zedekiah’s rebellion mirrors the people. Both will pay a heavy price.

Although Judah will experience the “end times,” God chooses to spare some from the warfare (12:16), a point made intermittently (5:3; 6:8; 11:16ff;) in the literary slice on judgement (chs. 4–24). Again, God mentions his no-mercy policy. Ezekiel’s audience together with those who will be “spared” death do represent an element of hope and a continual answer to the prophet’s plea, “Alas, Sovereign Lord! Will you completely destroy the remnant of Israel”? (11:13; 9:8). Mercy in the midst of judgment remains God’s prerogative. God asserts that self-preservation remains impossible and does not achieve an inward change. However, a supernatural preservation (12:16) will do two things. First, it will cause them to acknowledge their guilt and in turn acknowledge God once again. The humiliation and suffering of exile would help to bring this about. But eventually a supernatural preservation will lead to a supernatural restoration (chs. 34–48). In both preservation and restoration, the Lord’s reputation (Lev 26:42–45; Deut 4:30–31) will be renown. Exile, although clearly a judgment for rebellion, also provides a means of grace. Ezekiel shows and God tells in this first round of show and tell.

12:17–20 Word #2: Eating and drinking with fear and its meaning. The second “word of the Lord” commences with God requesting another round of show and tell where Ezekiel shows his audience something (12:17–18) and God tells the meaning (12:19–20). Through a violent movement on par with an earthquake (see 1Kgs 19:11; Amos 1:1 for use of the term), Ezekiel eats and drinks, which shows tremendous fear. He roleplays a captive in Jerusalem at the time of the siege. The basic routine of daily life will not be routine. God tells the audience that Ezekiel’s trembling represents the emotional turmoil that people will experience in the siege leading up to the exile. Thus, both “show and tell” events point forward to 586 BC, which, when it comes to pass, will produce a fresh revelation of the Lord to his people. Regardless of the creativity and effort put forth by Ezekiel, God’s people did not perceive what he was seeking to communicate.

12:21–28 Words #3 and #4: The right word and the right timing. The third and fourth “word of the Lord” conclude the chapter. Both tackle the rumor mill that generated unbelief about the prophetic word. Not only are spiritually blind people unable to perceive (12:1–20), but they are also unable to believe! The people of God express serious doubt and skepticism about Ezekiel as a true prophet and the “end” Ezekiel continually reports (7:1–27; 12:22). Their skepticism about the nation’s demise would include the prophetic words delivered from Amos (ca. 760 BC; cf. Amos 2:4–5) through Ezekiel. To be fair, Jerusalem remained unconquered in contrast to Samaria. People did not really fathom Jerusalem could or would fall. Moreover, according to Torah (Deut 18:14–22) proof of a true prophet concerned fulfillment of the spoken word. They grew impatient. They didn’t believe Ezekiel had the right word because it hadn’t happened. Their unbelief in the end times for Jerusalem boggles the mind given Ezekiel’s report to his audience of divine abandonment (11:25). And even though Ezekiel sounded the alarm notifying of the “end” (ch. 7) and offered several rounds of show and tell (chs. 4–5; 12), still “they have eyes to see but do not see” (12:2). For those that might think Ezekiel had the right word about the “end,” they denied its immanence as if to taunt him (12:27). Right word but wrong timing, Ezekiel. Good try! They sincerely did not believe they would live to see the end he proclaimed. Not us, not our generation (12:27; cf. Jer 7). Accordingly, God provides pushback and supports the claim of his minister in residence! God asserts that Ezekiel possesses both the right word and the right timing. Contrary to the content of popular prophetic voices, the word on the street is not correct. They are going to experience the “end times,” and those proclaiming anything different are false (12:24, 25; see ch. 13), a subject that will be more fully developed in chapters 13–14. God will put an end to their belief system that doesn’t align with his word via Ezekiel (12:23). The corrective, therefore, is that Ezekiel’s generation will witness the destruction (12:24, 28). In fact, they are within ten years of it coming to pass! Judgment day fast approaches. He offers further corrections pertaining to their misunderstanding of God’s word delivered by Ezekiel.

The evidence keeps stacking against the people of God. Chapter 12 brings into focus the connection between rebellion and a spiritual malaise, especially blindness. At high levels of leadership and at the grass roots, whether in Jerusalem or in Babylon, people are straining to understand the signs of the time. When these things happen in Jerusalem and the exiles learn of it in Babylon, perhaps they will have eyes to see and ears to hear Ezekiel’s subsequent messages that will pertain to their restoration! As one reflects on this from a pastoral perspective, it induces the fear of God. Due to rebellion (walking contrary to biblical standards), which results in spiritual blindness, we question preachers and teachers who warn of natural and spiritual consequences as they proclaim his Word. Does God’s Word really say that? Will this really happen to me? But churchgoers who try to make sense of and interpret life through a faulty lens of rebellion will reach wrong conclusions about God. They will also doubt those who proclaim the truths of his Word. Spiritual malaise and a lack of understanding God and his ways cause people to fall into unbelief about sin’s consequences.

Operation Stormy Wind (1:4) has already reached several targets. But more targets are in view. This section features false prophets and invalid inquirers of a true prophet. It furthers the discussion that started in 12:21–28 about the concern that God’s people listen to voices not validated by him. Ezekiel offers a brutal word to prophetic imposters (13:1–23). Linked to his confrontation of the false prophets is a scathing word to idolatrous elders. The latter consult false prophets and make routine house calls to Ezekiel, the true prophet (14:1–23; cf. 8:1). God sees their divided hearts, and it sets up a blockade between him and his people. They have compromised their direct access to God. Ezekiel’s ministry to the exiles, among other things, was for them to “know that a prophet has been among them” (2:5; 33:33). At this point, however, Ezekiel’s audience does not possess such knowledge about him. They do not validate Ezekiel’s prophetic voice and fail to understand Ezekiel’s warning grounded in Torah about these imposters.

According to Deuteronomy 18:20–22, God indicates he would not validate prophetic voices that did not originate with him. He condemns to death those speaking presumptuously (Deut 18:20). For those in the covenantal community trying to discern prophetic voices and their origin (i.e., from God or not), fulfillment provides a rock-solid answer as to origin (18:21–22). Ezekiel 13 makes it clear that God does not back the voices his people are listening to for guidance. Moreover, it makes clear their words will not find fulfillment. The chapter also illustrates important aspects of the role of a prophet in the context of the exile, which has become a concrete circumstance, not a hypothetical situation as discussed in Deuteronomy. Prophets were to repair and fortify God’s people by delivering the truth about Jerusalem’s end and an approximate timetable for it. They were to defend the weak spiritual fortifications of the nation by speaking out against its evils (13:5). In so doing they would be providing protection so as not to expose God’s people to more devastation. The intention was to give people a dose of reality to stand firm when the full consequences hit (13:5). Their godly council was expected, and their prestigious position was recognized in the community (13:9). They were meant to hearten the righteous and warn the wicked (13:19, 22), a watchman role like that of Ezekiel (3:16–21; 33:1–20). High expectations that entailed huge responsibilities surrounded the prophetic role. However, these prophetic voices fail to measure up to God’s standards.

13:1–23 Invalid prophetic voices. God addresses Israel’s male prophets (13:1–16) and female prophetesses, designated as “daughters of your people”¹⁸ (13:17–23), who failed to measure up to his expectations. Ironically, those expected to possess the “word of the Lord” need to “hear the word of the Lord” (13:2) because they lack validity in what they do. First, the way they get their information doesn’t derive from God (13:3). Ironically, the false prophets are seers who “have seen nothing.” God has not given them a message, yet they are deceiving the people with a message of hope (13:3, 17). The prophets fail to interpret properly the present for their audience. They lack a God-lens about sin and its consequences (the fall of Jerusalem) and do not offer the exiled community a correct exposition. The second point that makes these voices unsound is that without the true word of God and its elucidation, these prophets cannot provide spiritual stability. Increased vulnerability prevails. As jackals (wild scavenger dogs) among ruins enjoy easy access to roam, so too the false prophets enjoy easy access to roam in the devastated covenantal community (13:4). The jackal denotes a symbol of the desolation of a cursed city in the ancient Near East. Animals have replaced the human population (Petter, 321–22). The words of the prophets make spiritually weak people even weaker (13:5, 10). Theologically they bring further ruination rather than reparation. Metaphorically speaking, they lack the ability to “build up a wall” or to strengthen the weak spiritual fortifications of the nation by speaking out against its evils. In this way they fall short in their ability to defend God’s people (13:5). The third way that invalidates these voices concerns the fact they charge for their prophetic services. This indicates close associations with black magic and sorcery of witches or fortunetellers (13:18, 19). Driven by personal gain, they claimed their words came from God, but then they controlled, misled, and deceived. They aimed to trap people like hunters who stalk their prey (13:20). They were hunting the souls of God’s people who consulted with them. Their assistance represents a smearing campaign relative to God’s character (13:18–19). In sum, these prophetic voices lack the appropriate validation. Their words provide false repairs that won’t last when Operation Stormy Wind hits. 

Damage done by invalid prophetic voices. As a result of their failed leadership, very real damage ensues. God’s people are exposed, vulnerable, and weakened because of a famine of the true word of God at a time they need it the most. God’s people have a false peace or a false sense of security and well-being (13:10). These prophets “fix” poorly constructed walls by cosmetically covering up the problem areas or “smearing it with whitewash.” But the walls are structurally still weak and vulnerable. Futile messages unfold (cf. Jer 6:14; 8:11; Mic 3:5), and the disheartened people lack hope (13:22).

Consequences for false prophets. God doesn’t delight in his people being led astray and ensnared as prey in this way (13:10, 18, 19, 20, 21). The repeated designation “my people” (13:10, 21, 19, 23) shows that the level of God’s compassion persists even for hard-hearted rebellious folks on the receiving end of false prophesy (cf. the false shepherds in ch. 34). He does not delight in his word and character being undermined. Through Operation Stormy Wind, God personally holds the false prophets accountable: “I am against you” (13:8, 20). God will judge the false prophets, and their misguided theological constructs will come tumbling down—Jerusalem’s fall provides proof. God will unleash the stormy wind of his wrath (13:13.) God’s judgment comes in storm imagery (cf. 1:4–9; Ps 18:7–15; Isa 28:17; Jer 23:19) to rain down on the faulty structure and those who built it. He is his own agent of destruction. This “collapse” will take place when Jerusalem’s destruction becomes a reality, when the storm of his presence will be felt. The downfall of these voices enables God to loosen the grasp the false prophets have on his ensnared people (13:20, 21, 23) and to rescue those who have succumbed to believing their lies (13:19). Yet more danger lies ahead for those invalid inquiries of a prophet. 

14:1–11 Invalid inquiries of a true prophet rejected. The condemnation now turns to the recipients rather than the creators of false oracles (14:1–11). Although the address pertains to any Israelite or foreigner in the community (14:5, 7), God highlights the elders who have come for a second house call (14:3). To achieve the Lord’s perspective during a time of crisis, people consulted a prophet as standard practice (cf. 8:1; Num 22:8; 2 Kgs 4:38). God alerts of the impossibility of such a consultation. The hearing impaired come “to hear” from God! The irony? How could people who “hear” from idols, who “set the stumbling block of iniquity before their faces,” expect to hear from the one and true God who says, “you shall have no other gods in front of my face” (Exod 20:4–5)? A clear barrier exists, which makes even their inquiries of a true prophet invalid. Nevertheless, God obliges and “answers” their inquiries in an unexpected fashion. He bypasses the “official” prophetic channel originally set up at Sinai (Exod 20:18–19) in hopes to “lay hold of the hearts of the house of Israel,” to recapture their hearts. Accordingly, God handles all invalid inquiries himself to deal with the barrier.

First, he directly speaks (14:4, 7) and personally confronts their idolatry (14:4). He calls for their repentance (14:5–6). Ezekiel’s call to repent must be understood in light of the differing circumstances for the exiles (see also 18:30; 33:11). It pertains to acknowledgment of guilt and wrongdoing. Even though a change of circumstances is not possible (Jerusalem will fall), God calls for a lifestyle change. Discard your idolatrous alliances and renew your loyalties to the Lord. Discard barriers to loyalty in the relationship. The lifestyle change would reflect a heart change. God causes them to hear what he wants them to hear, not what they want to hear (14:7). The second way he handles invalid inquiries concerns a removal and cleaning process. God will remove the prophet from giving counsel (14:8). He will eliminate one of the means of contact between himself and his people. The third way he deals with the situation is to give them more of what they want. As a form of judgment, the Lord will force a false prophet to falsely prophesy to an idolatrous inquirer (cf. 1Kgs 22:19–23; Jer 20:7, 10). The Lord gives people over to their own desires (Rom 1:18–32; 2Thes 2:9–12) with the possibility of death to cleanse as the outcome. He eliminates the guilty parties. The removal and cleansing allow for a restored relationship with the Lord in the future (14:11; cf. Exod 6:2–8). It removes the barriers to a loyal relationship. In this way, he goes after the real problem, their hearts (14:5; cf. 3:7), the generator for idolatry. Thus, God rejects invalid inquiries, even of a true prophet. In what follows, he also rejects inquiries of safety based on another’s gold standard of living.

14:12–23 Inquiries of safety through another’s righteousness rejected. False prophetic words won’t save, and neither will another’s righteousness. The section makes clear that “salvation” (14:14, 16, 18, 20) from the upcoming judgment is not possible and cannot be achieved by another’s righteousness. Hopeful hypotheticals such as that described in 14:12–20, “when a land sins . . . If . . . even if,” likely produced by the exiles as a result of listening to false prophesy are just that, hypothetical (14:12–20; cf. Gen 18). Hope resides only in God’s favor on individuals. Just as God spared figures such as Noah, Daniel, and Job from the full end of hardship (Gen 6:9; Job 1:1) because of his favor on their lives, individual family members or friends can only hold out for God’s favor.¹⁹

In fact, God promises an inescapable judgment on Jerusalem prescribed in the Law for disobedience (14:21). He vows to send against the city his covenantal curses described by a fourfold package of dreadful judgments. He sends the sword. This refers to suffering consequences in war (Lev 26:25, 33; Deut 32:24, 41–42). He sends beasts or ravenous animals, creatures that inhabit desolate cities because of a siege (Lev 26:22; Deut 32:24). He sends famine, which speaks of the death of the city’s inhabitants when isolated from food sources in a siege situation (Lev 26:26, 29, 45; Deut. 28:53–56; 32:24). He also sends a pandemic. This speaks of sickness and disease due to living conditions during a siege (Lev 26:14; Deut 28:21–22; 32:24). Amid this terrible judgment, however, some “sons and daughters” miraculously survive. These represent younger folks (another generation) who join the remnant already in exile. These will live in exile but on account of their immoral conduct will demonstrate their guilt. Unlike previously where God chooses to spare some (12:16), no mention is made of his agency in this process. Yet it does allude to his grace that they barely made it. The point? These survivors (the younger generation) do not find deliverance by another’s righteousness, much less their own. In fact, their wicked conduct (14:22) amid the exiles will confirm to those in Babylon the justness of God’s judgment on the city (14:22–23). It will bring “relief” (following Block, 452) to Ezekiel’s audience about God’s character. Thus, God deals decisively with voices and inquires not validated by him.

The evidence is stacked against leadership in the covenantal community, particularly the prophetic guild and Israel’s elders in chapters 13–14. The loud, convincing, and hopeful “prophetic voices” are not validated by God. These voices caused greater turmoil for God’s people. Yet it is remarkable how God’s compassion accompanies brutal words of judgment for those amongst his people who hurt his people. Furthermore, God does not validate false inquiries from those who have a form of godliness but deny him. God visits the prophets, elders, and wider community, and as a result, they come face to face with a God who by no means clears the guilty (Exod 34:7).

People turn to hopeful hypotheticals when doubting God’s Word. By listening to teachers and preachers who tickle their ears in combination with their own denial of the circumstances, God’s people create a false sense of reality and interpretation about the suffering due to sin. As pastors and teachers, as those bearing the Word of God to others, our call is clear: we are to rightly handle his Word (2Tim 2:15). Our responsibility is to help people in the church properly interpret their circumstances in accordance with the full counsel of God’s Word found from Genesis to Revelation. As Paul himself did and encouraged Timothy, we must not tell people what they want to hear but tell them what God’s Word says (2Tim 4:3–4; Acts 20:17–21). To do anything less compromises God’s character. Voices not validated by God affect God personally and God’s people.

After he targets the failures of the prophetic guild (chs. 13–14), Ezekiel turns his attention to the failures of the covenantal community. He taps into major themes of Israelite history with three poignant stories: the fruitlessness of Israel depicted in the useless vine that God consumes (ch. 15); the Canaanization of Israel portrayed in the forgetful and promiscuous wife whom God openly exposes (ch. 16); and the failure of the Davidic Kingship demonstrated with the unreliable and oath-breaking king on whom God executes justice (ch. 17). Fruitfulness, remembering, and keeping covenant were hallmarks of both the Abrahamic and Mosaic economies, all lost now due to unfaithfulness. Neither the nation nor its king can keep covenant. Through literary elements of surprise and shock, he attempts to reach his hearing-impaired audience. Regardless of their advantageous status with God and the associated benefits, their hearts still stray. God acts to get to their hearts.

15:1–8 The fruitless vine. The first of three stories features the people of Jerusalem as a vine (15:1–8). This taps into the theme of Israel’s fruitfulness. The surprise factor pertains to the fruitlessness and subsequent uselessness of the vine. God the vinedresser planted and tended the vine (Isa 5:1–7). He also transplanted the vine from Egypt, and it grew bountifully (Ps 80:8–9). The vine, however, turns bad through no fault of the vinedresser (Isa 5:2; Jer 2:21; Ezek 17:5–6). Despite all the advantages it had, the vine produced bad fruit. It subjected itself to destruction. Against this historical backdrop, Ezekiel’s discussion furthers that of the other prophets about the vine. It highlights the uselessness of wood that remains after the harvest of a grapevine’s fruit. It cannot manufacture furniture because it lacks durability. It can provide only slight benefit as fuel for a fire. And it offers even less value when fully burned up (15:2–5). The answer to the main question, “Is the wood useful?” in a series of rhetorical questions requires a hard “No!” Rather than produce fruit, an attribute of the Abrahamic blessings, fruitlessness marks this vine. Accordingly, the nation’s fruitlessness equates to having no value (see also Ps 80:8–16; Jer 2:21). An interpretation accompanies the story for clarity (Ezek 15:6–7; cf. Gen 49:22; Deut 32:32: Isa 5:1–7; Jer 2:21). 

The vine’s uselessness points to the outcome for the nation with the events of 586 BC in view. When the Babylonians destroy what remains of Jerusalem’s population (2Kgs 24:14; 2Chron 36:10), their covenantal purposes become ineffectual (Exod 19:4–6; Gen 12:1–3). Although the invading Babylonians will burn the city as an instrument of warfare (see Josh 6:24; 1Kgs 9:16), fire represents God’s consuming fury against them. God’s fire destroys rather than purifies (cf. Isa 1:25; Mal 3:2–3). As fire burns refuse (Lev 8:17), so too God rejects the residents of Jerusalem as useless refuse because of unfaithfulness. The land, as a result, will lie desolate as promised in the covenantal curses for disobedience (Lev 26:32–35, 43; Deut 29:23). In sum they are fruitless and useless, both by-products of unfaithfulness and broken vows (15:8). 

16:1–63 The vile prostitute: The Canaanization of Israel. The second of three stories features the people as an unfaithful marriage partner (16:1–63). This image taps into the theme of Israel’s Canaanization. Israel’s relationship with God in the OT mirrors a marriage covenant (Exod 6:6–7; 19–20). The husband, Yahweh, elected his bride, Israel, for an exclusive relationship. When Israel breaks her covenant with God, Ezekiel equates it to breaking the bond of marriage (cf. Hos 1:2; 2:2; Jer 2:1; 3:6; Isa 50:1). God shows that their religious and political compromises (idolatry) look like adultery and prostitution; they are an unfaithful wife. This profile exposes Jerusalem as a professional whore (the term znh is used over twenty times in the chapter). For personal gain she gives her affections to numerous others. In terms of space, this chapter represents the longest single oracle in the book. With an “R” rating for sexual language and some violence (15:25, 26, 36–37), it makes for a hard and shocking read. The surprise factor pertains to the news that Jerusalem comes out worse in her conduct than both Sodom and Samaria (15:44–52). Previously, Ezekiel mentioned that God’s people were worse than their descendants (2:4; 3:7), worse than foreigners (3:4–7), worse than the “unbelieving” neighboring nations (5:6–7), and perhaps worse than Pharaoh (3:7). Now their profile appears worse than Sodom. As sure as Sodom and Samaria came to an end, so will Jerusalem. Ezekiel does not attempt to water down the offensive nature of Jerusalem’s sin. More than any other prophet he maximizes use of the marriage metaphor. Regardless of Jerusalem’s protection and election by the Lord, the bride broke her vows, and a divorce lies ahead. Jerusalem’s conduct shocks as much as the language used to describe that conduct. In sum, through story this record of Israelite History 101 reflects what it looks like to forget God by violating sacred vows (16:59). 

16:1–3 Jerusalem: Her dubious origin. Chapter 16 has three parts (16:1–43; 44–52; 54–63). The first part addresses idolatry and illustrates the problem with the analogy of the unfaithful wife (16:1–43). Through irony God sets the record straight about any pride associated with the prestige of the patriarchs and the land of milk and honey they inherited (the loin of Jacob, Exod 1:1–5). The findings of Jerusalem’s ancestry show nothing positive. Strike #1 concerns an unfavorable homeland: “Your origin and birth are of the land of the Canaanites (Ezek 16:3). Both the land and inhabitants of Canaan represented opposition to the Lord. Both were to come under God’s judgment for their wickedness (Gen 15:13–16). Strike #2: Jerusalem’s parents were of non-Israelite origin (Amorite and Hittite; cf. 16:45). Like the Canaanites, the Amorites were pre-Israelite, Semitic inhabitants of Canaan (see Gen 10:16 and note; 48:22; Jos 5:1 and note; 10:5; Judg 1:34–36). The Hittites were non-Semitic residents of Canaan who had flourished in Anatolia (Turkey) during the second millennium BC (see Gen 10:15; 23:10–20; 26:34; 1Sam 26:6). Israel intermarried with the population of the land and served the Canaanite gods (Judg 3:6). By serving the Canaanite gods, they diluted their tribal identity. They compromised their bloodline, so Jerusalem’s origin is tainted and dubious. These origins help to explain Jerusalem’s profile that follows. The Israelites acted like Canaanites. By marrying foreigners, they broke their spiritual marriage vows to the Lord.

16:4–7 Jerusalem: Rescued and reared by the Lord. Regardless of her dubious origin, God treats Jerusalem with compassion. On Jerusalem’s “birthday,” instead of receiving the expected care at birth, Jerusalem experienced treatment as an unwanted baby girl (16:4). In keeping with common pagan societies, the baby’s exposure subjected her to abandonment and death (16:5). God, unlike negligent birth parents, saw and had compassion on the abandoned, unwashed baby (amniotic fluid and blood at birth). With one word of his mouth he rescued, adopted, and took in the infant (Jerusalem). He graciously gave her life and watched her youthful development into puberty where her “breasts were formed” and pubic “hair” had grown (16:6–7). 

16:8 Jerusalem: Her symbolic marriage to the Lord. After rescuing and rearing Jerusalem, he also married her before anyone else could. God married the young woman when he saw that she was ready for lovemaking: “I spread the corner of my garment over you” (16:8). This action signified the establishment of a new relationship. It entailed protection and sustenance for the wife (cf. Ruth 3:9). The Lord pledged his commitment to his betrothed by a gesture of raising his hand (Ezek 16:8; cf. 20:5). This assured her of a very special status and possession. Jerusalem became his, Yahweh’s wife (16:8; Mal 2:14). 

16:9–34 Jerusalem: The bride exploits her beauty. As her husband, God provides generously for Jerusalem in the marriage. She was cleansed, perfumed, and adorned with lavish garments and fine jewelry and given the choicest of food, perhaps a wedding ritual (Pss 45: 78:63; Jer 2:32; Isa 61:10). These represent lavish provisions that her loving and committed husband provided for her (Ezek 16:9–14). Ironically, the overconfident bride (16:15, world-renown beauty queen) used her beauty, reputation, and all the lavish gifts she graciously received and “played the whore.” Her sexual “favors” were numerous and indiscriminate (16:15–16). Figuratively speaking, she indulged in multiple partners because of an insatiable sex drive. These partners included the Egyptians, Philistines, Assyrians, and Babylonians (16:26–29), who represent Jerusalem’s political alliances. These partners caused her to turn away from and forget God (16:22). God’s disgust with their lust (cf. 23:20) comes by way of his description of her partners, particularly the Egyptians, “neighbors with large genitals” (16:26). Rather than dedicate Yahweh’s children to him (cf. Gen 21:3; 24:26, etc.), she dedicated them to idols as food (Ezek 16:20–21), a vile practice of child sacrifice practiced by the Canaanites and condemned by God (Lev 18:21; Deut 18:10; 2Kgs 21:6; cf. Jer. 7:31). This crime signals the point of no return (so too 2Kgs 21:10–16). Her spiritual roots do lie in the land of Canaan (following Block, 491; cf. 16:3). With a heart so feverish for folly, she could not achieve exclusive loyalty in the relationship to God. Jerusalem’s acts of prostitution and adultery are worse than typical practices because she extracts from and makes payments to her lovers (Ezek 16:33–34). All of this represents another surprise factor in Jerusalem’s profile. 

16:35–43 Jerusalem: Her divorce. Since Jerusalem’s promiscuity knows no boundaries, God will intervene. He prosecutes the vile prostitute (16:35–43) for her idolatry as one caught in adultery and guilty of bloodshed according to Mosaic Law (Lev 20:10). Initially, God provided a garment to cover her nakedness, which symbolized marriage (16:4, 7–8). Now he will remove that garment (“uncover and strip you”) and expose her in open shame. This symbolizes divorce (Hos 2:4–5). He promises divorce when he brings an end to the city (cf. Ezek 7). After this detachment takes place, his demeanor towards them will change. He describes it as psychological relief in his emotions (cf. 5:13–14). All of this because Jerusalem forgot her humble beginnings and vulnerable state in “the days of your youth (16:43). She forgot God’s mercy that took her in when she was helpless and vulnerable. Jerusalem owes everything to God. He didn’t abandon her; rather, the story testifies that she abandoned him. Still more disquieting information about Jerusalem follows.

16:44–52 Jerusalem: Her siblings. The second part of Jerusalem’s profile shifts from their religious and military compromises (idolatry) to social injustices. God utilizes the current word on the street, “Like mother like daughter,” one of their very own sayings, or a “proverb” (mashal; 16:44; cf., 12:22; 18:2) to underline some surprising facts. They don’t have to look far to makes sense of their situation. By a familial analogy of a mother and daughter and an older and younger sister (16:44–52), Jerusalem “takes after” her Hittite mother (16:3). The family traits also passed to Jerusalem’s two siblings, Samaria and Sodom, both daughters of their Hittite mother. Understandably, Samaria was related to Jerusalem. Both descended from the patriarch, Israel. Samaria was known for social crimes against humanity along with idolatry (2Kgs 17; Amos). Jerusalem and Sodom, however, are not related. The irony? In terms of character traits, they present like family members (Ezek 16:47–50). Ezekiel mentions Sodom separate from the typical twin cities’ designation, Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen 13:10; chs. 18–19). For Ezekiel the twin cities become the twin sisters. Rather than Sodom and Gomorrah, it becomes Jerusalem and Gomorrah! 

Sodom and Gomorrah represent bywords for evil, a paradigmatic expression for ungodliness. It recalls a self-destructive depravity and the pinnacle of social and moral evil (Gen 13:10; 19:4–9; Deut 29:23; Isa 1:9–10). It speaks of opposition to God’s purposes and functions as a paradigm for divine judgment on the nations and God’s own (cf. Isa 13:19; Jer 49:18; Lam 4:6; Amos 4:11).²⁰ The idolatrous activity of God’s people pictured as promiscuity in this chapter conjures up the sexual perversion found in Sodom and Gomorrah. Calling Sodom Jerusalem’s sister would have shocked and insulted Ezekiel’s audience. The pride of God’s people blinded them to the reality that their poor behavior superseded that of Sodom’s (16:56). The facts of the case? Sister Sodom fairs better than Jerusalem (16:52). Now Jerusalem, along with Samaria and Sodom, are known proverbially for their wickedness. Thus, both the adulterous wife and sibling metaphors rely heavily on irony to unpack the nation’s ongoing and escalating guilt. Ezekiel tries to spark feelings in his hardened audience. Through irony he attempts to correct wrong self-perceptions about their identity. The disparity between their views and God’s couldn’t be greater. The practical and moral lessons about arrogance and identity ring loud in this story. In sum, their forgetfulness of God’s care makes them religiously promiscuous and socially corrupt, both by- products of unfaithfulness (16:43). Is this the end of the story for Jerusalem?

16:53–63 Restoration of the vilest. The third part of Jerusalem’s profile concludes with a note about restoration (16:53–63). God promises family restoration (16:53–58). All the siblings will return to their former state of well-being. But again, more shock and irony unfold. The point of the restoration pertains to parading Jerusalem’s pride (16:56). God will restore wicked Sodom. By doing so he will cut to the core of Jerusalem’s arrogance (16:56–58). The shock concerns God’s claim that he can restore the vilest of the vile. 

Moreover, God offers a word concerning Jerusalem’s own restoration. It, too, shocks the reader (16:59–63). His mercy and grace will lead them to do what they are unable to do presently, which is to admit guilt. His kindness initiated in the restoration process will finally lead them to humble themselves before him. Humility does not precede but follows restoration (16:63). By breaking covenant, they failed to remember him. By keeping covenant, he will not fail to remember them. His promises to Abraham remain untouchable even after he dispenses the full throttle of the Sinaitic covenantal curses. One finds a deliberate play on words mentioned four times here. When God remembers, it translates into action (Gen 9:15–16; Exod 2:24; 6:5; Lev 26:42; Ps 105:8). God himself will do for faithless Jerusalem what she cannot do for herself: he purifies them (16:63; cf. Rom 3:23). God’s purification and forgiveness provide the catalyst for true, genuine, heartfelt change. It will cover shame and humiliation for sin. The action described here helps to identify more specifically the “everlasting covenant” in 16:60. It refers to the New Covenant spoken of in Isaiah 59:21 and Jeremiah 31:31–34 and fulfills elements of the Abrahamic covenant (Isa 55:3; Jer 32:40). God will graciously intervene to purge and to purify (Ezek 36; Deut 21:8; Isa 22:14), regardless of violated vows. In this way, Jerusalem’s story will continue. God’s mercy provides the last word for the vilest of the vile. 

17:1–24 The vacillating vassal. After the fruitless vine and adulterous wife, the third image features two eagles and a vine. Although the first two stories speak of the theme of unfaithfulness, this one captures it at an individual level. It taps into the theme of the Davidic Dynasty and its promised longevity (2Sam 7) against the failure of its last king. Cast in the form of a riddle or “allegory” (17:3–10; see also 20:49, cf. Judg 14:12–19), Ezekiel unfolds an extended metaphor (or mashal; cf. Ezek 16:44; 12:22; 18:2 for a different use of the term). God expects Ezekiel’s audience to solve the riddle, but he is the one who interprets this mysterious story (17:11b–21). Although largely negative, it ends on a positive note (17:22–24).

17:1–10 Two eagles and a vine. The story emphasizes the eagle, an image of power and speed known for its expertise in hunting and sudden attacks on its prey. Eagle #1 seizes prey from Lebanon, the northern border of Israel (17:3–4; Josh 13:26; Judg 3:1–3).²¹ The eagle transports its prey to another location where it flourishes into a fruitful vine (17:5–6). However, once established in the land of eagle #1, the vine takes initiative and reaches out to eagle #2, another source for nourishment and care (17:7–8). Given the vine’s new direction, the question “Will it thrive?” gets to the heart of the matter (17:9–10). The key question pertains to the outcome of the vine under the care of eagle #2. The rhetorical force of a riddle calls for audience engagement. The implied answer requires a negative response. The vine cannot thrive or survive, certainly not when the “east wind” blows in. This hot, dry wind withers vegetation (17:10). The vine will not survive. 

17:11–21 The meaning: The failure of the Davidic line. Ezekiel’s audience does not possess the power to interpret the story. “Don’t you know what these things mean? (17:12; 24:19) reflects God’s tongue-in-cheek attitude toward them. God immediately gives the explanation (17:12b–21). Now he brings together the vine (17:1–10) and kingship (17:22–21). God confirms the human failure of the Davidic line in his interpretation. It represents the vacillating and unprincipled policies of the Judean puppet king, Zedekiah. 

The first great eagle represents King Nebuchadnezzar, who attacked Jerusalem in 597 BC and carried away King Jehoiachin, “the topmost of its young twigs,” to Babylon (2Kgs 24:10–17). The Babylonian king also placed Zedekiah, “the seed of the land” and a “low spreading vine,” on the Judean throne. Because of the deportation (2Kgs 24:15–16; Jer 52:28), he was no longer a tall cedar. Rather than submit and offer gratitude to Nebuchadnezzar, Zedekiah rebelled by calling on Egypt for help, the second great eagle (Ezek 17:7), an Egyptian pharaoh, either Psammetichus II (595–589 BC) or Hophra (589–570 BC; cf. Jer 37:5–7). The vine (Zedekiah) “bent its roots toward Egypt,” and appealed for military help from the Egyptians (17:7–8). His installation as puppet king put Zedekiah unwillingly “under oath” to keep political alliances with the king of Babylon. Zedekiah rebels. At the horizontal level he breaks his oath by turning to Pharaoh and Egypt for help, the second eagle (2Chr 36:13; Jer 35:5–7; 44:30; 52:11). The repeated references to “treaty”/ “vow” (berit/be’ala) in such a small section highlight the issue of Zedekiah’s lack of loyalty (six times: 17:13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19). 

 “Will he [Zedekiah] succeed? “Will it [the vine] thrive?” asks God (17:15, 9). No, Zedediah will not escape the ordeal. The statement “As I live, surely it is my oath he despised” reflects that Zedekiah’s lack of loyalty also reached a vertical dimension (17:19–20; cf. 2Chr 36:11–14). He pledged his allegiance to Nebuchadnezzar in God’s name. Israel’s God would hold Zedekiah liable unto death if the king did not keep his side of the bargain: “May the Lord kill me if I do not do what I promised” (an oath that promises harm to the one making and breaking his word; see Gen 15:17). By relying on Egypt and maintaining a pro-Egyptian stance, Zedekiah breaks his vows of loyalty both to Nebuchadnezzar and Yahweh (17:18; cf. 2Chr 36:13). Can Zedekiah survive by relying on someone other than the Lord? Can he survive military arrangements of his own doing? In this regard, the last monarch from the Davidic line fails.

The speed and power of the eagle and its ability to hunt and attack aptly depict the sure coming judgment for the king. The nations portrayed as eagles (Babylon and Egypt) bring disaster to God’s people for breaking covenant (Lam 4:19; Hos 8:1). This story exposes the vulnerability of the king (cf. Ezek 12:12–14). The surprise factor concerns Zedekiah’s lack of gratitude and loyalty to the king of Babylon for the latter’s gracious provision of a seat on the throne (2Kgs 24:18). In sum, despising God makes him break oath and causes rebellions, by-products of the unfaithfulness of King Zedekiah, the duplicitous and trend-following vassal (Ezek 17:20). The vow-breaking of the king mirrors that of Jerusalem (16:1–63). From all appearances it looks like a failure on both the human and divine side of God’s covenantal oath to David (2Sam 7). God’s final word to Ezekiel in 17:22–24 leaves no suspense.

17:22–24 The future of the Davidic line. In the final three verses of this chapter, God portrays himself as an eagle like the previous allegory portrays Nebuchadnezzar and Pharaoh (17:12–21). Rather than hunt high in the air and swoop down on its prey, God the eagle will provide strength, deliverance, and stability. He will provide what no human ruler could. At God’s initiative he will replant a shoot or “sprig” on Israel’s mountain heights. It will grow into a cedar that provides shelter for birds. A “shoot” or “branch” speaks of a messianic figure, a son of David, under whose branches one would find safety, and the royal line would be revived (Isa 4:2; 11:1; Jer 23:5; 33:15; Zech 3:8; 6:12). The new king from David’s line anticipates Christ. He will rule over a renewed and mighty kingdom symbolized by the mountain on which the cedar is planted (Isa 2:2; Mic 4:1). Faithfulness will mark his rule. The eternal nature of what God promised David is not subject to change. Through this God provides strength and stability for his people. He does not compromise. He does not vacillate. He upholds his vows with uncompromising loyalty.

God gives Ezekiel three stories that creatively illustrate true events concerning Jerusalem’s downfall. The theme of vow-breaking ties them together. Lack of faithfulness leads the nation and individuals to establish trust in someone or something other than the Lord. This makes them useless to God, forgetful of his care and as good as dead, unable to thrive and survive. These oracles intentionally lure the audience. By means of rhetorical questions (15:1–5; 17:9–10; 11, 15), metaphor (15:6–8), exaggeration/shock (16:1–63), and allegory (17:1–24), the prophet exposes lack of loyalty from several angles. 

Israel’s lack of fruitfulness points forward to true fruitfulness found only in Jesus. Ezekiel illustrates the truth of Jesus’s declaration “apart from me you can do nothing” (John 15:5). Abiding in him makes us fruitful and useful. Abiding in him causes us to remember God’s goodness. Abiding in him causes us to keep his covenant. The second point Ezekiel touches upon concerns Israel’s Canaanization of Israel. It persisted through the time of Ezra-Nehemiah (Ezra 9–10; Neh 13). The question continually before the people of God pertained to one’s loyalty. Will one give allegiance to the Lord or forget him in favor of the gods of Canaan? In fact, there is nothing wrong with Canaanite bloodline. Matthew’s gospel affirms the legitimacy of the Canaanite bloodline with the inclusion of Rahab, Uriah, and others, but especially Jesus the Messiah, the true son of David. Even more than Ezekiel’s discussion of Israel’s ancestry, Jesus offends and humbles the boasts of his audience, “We are Abraham’s descendant . . . Abraham is our father” (John 8:33, 39). To this Jesus retorts, “You belong to your father, the devil, and you want to carry out your father’s desires” (John 8:44). The other topic from Israelite history that Ezekiel addresses concerns the Davidic line. Where Israel’s Davidic line failed, Revelation shows Jesus as a faithful king (Rev 1:5; 19:1), faithful over God’s house as a son (Heb 3:5–6), which results in his exaltation (Phil 2:9–11). The covenantal faithfulness of Jesus the true Israelite and Jesus the true king fulfills the expectations of both the Abrahamic and Mosaic covenants.

The discussion of Jerusalem’s broken vows and those of King Zedekiah in the previous section (chs. 15–17) gives way to a major theological lesson on the topic of human versus divine justice (chs. 18–19). Two competing paradigms exist about the interpretation of their present circumstances: God’s view and their view. Through Ezekiel, God asks them to verify their manufactured theology. Are there theological constructs in line with God’s? Through skillful rhetoric, called a “proverb” (mashal), chapter 18 (vv. 2, 3) engages Ezekiel’s audience (cf. 12:22–23; 16:44). He desires them to see the error in their human logic and to re-evaluate their views. The lesson shows evidence of the inability of God’s people to own and admit guilt (see Introduction). This deficit of character drives them to malign God’s character. The charges? God is not just. God prefers death not life. This chapter picks up on the main idea of the book: out of death comes life (see Introduction). The focus here turns to God’s desire for life and how to achieve it.²² God schools them, and they learn a valuable lesson or two about the divine judge and his justice system (18:1–32). He holds them accountable not only for their idolatrous actions but also for a wrong belief system. 

The reason admitting guilt remains an obstacle (beyond hardness of heart duly noted by Ezekiel) pertains to their theology. They have overemphasized corporate solidarity and downplayed individual responsibility. They preferred the blame game. A proper theological framework will help them balance federal headship/corporate solidarity with individual responsibility. It will permit an open and honest self-evaluation to make changes in their present behavior. Chapter 19 offers a laboratory example of the outworkings of God’s proverb in the lives of three individual Judean kings (following Block). Ezekiel uses the funeral dirge genre (19:1) to amplify his point that “the soul that sins shall die” (18:4). Since most of the nation’s kings were oppressive, rebellious, and guilty (Deut 24:16; Jer 31:30), they can’t hide behind the promises to the Davidic descendants (2Sam 7:12–16). The chastisement spoken of in the Davidic Covenant applies to individual kings even as the promise of Davidic Kingship is eternal (2Sam 7:15–16). In what follows God forces a reevaluation of their views.

18:1–4 Human vs. divine view of justice. A problematic slogan and popular belief circulated among those who experienced the exile of 597 BC (cf. Jer 31:29; 18:2): “The parents eat sour grapes, and the children’s teeth are set on edge.” The slogan suggests a fatalistic approach to life and a deterministic worldview (following Block, 560). The statement equally suggests self-pity, one that mocks God’s justice. Teeth set on edge could mean “blunted” or “worn” teeth or perhaps a bitter or sour taste in the mouth. The derivation of their slogan likely stems from a misunderstanding of Exodus 20:5 (cf. Deut 5:9–10). Exodus states that God punishes the children for the sins of the parents to the third and fourth generation. They seemed to have missed, however, the qualifying phrase from Torah that goes with the statement: “visiting the iniquity of the fathers on the children . . . of those who hate me” (Exod 20:5–6; Deut 9–10). The notion of “hate” refers to disloyalty in the covenant relationship, not a heart sentiment. God immediately corrects their proverb with one of his own: “The one who sins is the one who will die” (18:4). The blame game doesn’t work because individuals are accountable before God. Individuals are not in the hand of fate but in the hand of God. He looks at individuals in a group. In the following theological lesson, he describes three men (18:5–9, 10–13, 14–18), standing for three generations. These correct their understandings of the three/four-generation pattern of inherited guilt (Exod 20:5–6; 34:6–7; Deut 5:9–10).

18:5–9 Reality #1: Personal righteousness matters. The verdict of life pertains to a righteous person (18:5). In this context, a righteous individual is clearly defined. He follows and keeps God’s laws (18:9). He acts faithfully relative to ceremonial and moral injunctions suggested in the list of character traits describing such a person (18:6–8). Righteousness gets credited individually regardless of parental influence (18:5–9). The verdict for the man of this first generation concerns life. Life here means the blessing of God and fellowship with him (see Pss 63:3; 73:27–28).²³ God encourages Ezekiel’s audience that things can get better for the person in exile regardless of the decreed end of the nation. He prompts a personal inventory of one’s conduct. 

18:10–13 Reality #2: Personal responsibility matters. The verdict of death pertains to a wicked son (18:10). In this context, a wicked son is clearly defined. He does not follow and keep God’s laws. He violates the ceremonial and moral injunctions suggested in the list of character traits describing such a person (18:10–13). This son’s unrighteousness gets credited individually regardless of positive parental conduct (18:10–13) in keeping with the law of the rebellious son noted in Deuteronomy (Deut 21:18–21). This proves 18:4b, that the one who sins shall die. It will not go well for one who does not faithfully keep God’s commands. The Law recommends for such a case that the punishment (death) fit the crime (Lev 20:9–27). A guilty individual must own responsibility and will not live (Ezek 18:13). God clarifies for Ezekiel’s audience using the example of a case law, that if execution of a wicked person ensues, it is because of their own sin (following Block, 577). 

18:14–18 Reality #3: God has no grandchildren, only children. A verdict of life for a man’s righteous grandson. The verdict of life pertains to a righteous grandson. Righteousness gets credited individually regardless of negative parental conduct (18:14–18). This also proves 18:4b, that the one who sins shall die. It is the opposite of the son in 18:10–13. This son has not done detestable things contrary to God’s Law. God’s proverb needs to replace their problematic proverb. Thus, these three hypothetical scenarios about a father, his son, and the grandson illustrate God’s views on generational guilt and innocence (18:4–18). The theological lessons seem clear. No transference of guilt or righteousness from a parent to a child or grandchild exists. The present condition of one’s soul is what matters. The conduct of one’s life in the present provides the plumbline for God’s evaluation, not the past.

18:19–32 God is not unjust. The second half of the chapter (18:19–32) reveals that the audience doesn’t resonate with the previous lesson. They find no satisfaction with God’s views. Based on their human presuppositions, they provide pushback. The Lord reveals their questions and thoughts—“Yet you ask” and “Yet you say” (18:19, 25, 29)—and addresses their concerns in what follows.

18:19–20 Pushback #1: “Why doesn’t the son share the guilt of his father?” On the surface this seems a legitimate question. Their theological presuppositions about sin and guilt likely come from two places, the Mosaic Law itself and the experience of Israel as a nation. With respect to the former, Exodus shows the collective nature of guilt (Exod 20:5–6; 34:6–7; Isa 65:7). To be sure, as a priest steeped in Israel’s Law code and sacrificial system, Ezekiel himself highlights the collective nature of guilt throughout his prophecies. The historical record also reflects corporate solidarity. All could suffer because of one. Achan, who hails from the tribe of Judah, underscores this possibility (Josh 7:1–26). The reign of Manasseh created the exile according to the record in Kings (2Kgs 21:12–18). Thus, the question they pose to the Lord makes sense given these realities and the associated presuppositions. Nevertheless, Yahweh’s theological framework supports the twin concepts of collective and individual guilt. Ezekiel does not deny federal headship (cf. Exod 12; Lev 16; Isa 53); he brings a balance and reminds them that corporate headship doesn’t cancel individual responsibility. The son does not share in the guilt of the father because in the present context God addresses individual guilt, not familial or corporate guilt of the past. Therefore, God’s initial response, “the one who sins is the one who will die” (18:4), still stands as a firm pushback to their distorted understanding (18:20). In what follows God emphasizes how the choice rests with individuals either to “convert” or “revert.” 

18:21–24 Reality #4: One can convert to a life of righteousness. Why is this so? Because God doesn’t delight in the death of the wicked or of anyone (18:23–24, 32). He allows for a person to change the direction of their life, to repent (shuv). Repentance entails keeping God’s Law and doing what is just and right. The repentant person’s actions will reflect God’s morals and ethics. The practical outworking of righteousness produces life. In this context life refers to avoiding further judgment from God. It leads to the preservation of physical life, although not life that is necessarily void of hardships. God will not factor in a person’s wicked past given a visible lifestyle change. This answers the charge that God lacks mercy, prefers judgment over mercy, or punishes the unrighteous on a whim. What pleases God is the preservation of life, not death (also 18:32; 16:6; 33:11; Jon 4:11). Ezekiel’s audience should take comfort in this fact. 

Reality #5: One can revert to a life of wickedness (18:24). As one can convert to a life of righteousness, the opposite can also occur! If a righteous person reverts to an unrighteous life, he will suffer the consequences of this lifestyle change. The practical outworking of unfaithfulness produces death. In this context “death” refers to experiencing more of God’s judgment and hardship that might lead to loss of physical life. God is a just God. He will by no means clear guilty individuals. Individuals give account to God and reflect the importance of one’s present context. In the middle of exile (God’s judgment for sin), what kind of lifestyle are the exiles presently leading? Rather than produce a healthy introspection, this reality (that one can convert or revert) leads to further pushback.

18:25–32 Pushback #2: “The way of the Lord is not just or ‘regulated’” (18:25, 29). The exiles still fault God’s character. Even after clarifying his system of justice, God receives more resistance. His rationale doesn’t satisfy. God’s irritation at the false charge expresses itself strongly in the way he addresses them at the conclusion of his theology lesson: “Hear, you Israelites” (18:25)!²⁴ Hear the truth! Pay attention audience. He turns the table on them. The problem is not God’s character, it is yours! Your ways are not just or “regulated” (18:25, 29). He calls their character and behavior into question (see also 33:17). The statements “get a new heart”²⁵ and “repent and live” (18:32; cf. 14:6; 33:10) charge them towards the kind of action God intends, a moral responsibility to live right. The original language suggests the reading “return” and “turn yourselves,” which captures the goal with more precision (see 18:31). Although reversing God’s judgment on Jerusalem remains impossible (cf. 2:8; 7:1), he urges the exiles to make lifestyle changes that will benefit them in their present circumstances. 

19:1–14 The soul that sins shall die: An illustration in Judah’s guilty kings. Ezekiel 19:1–14 further demonstrates the outworkings of God’s justice system, now with the Judean monarchs in view. God holds individual kings (not just individual Israelites, ch. 18) accountable and illustrates the principles in found chapter 18. In line with Ezekiel’s role as a mourner (mourning before the events unfold; see Introduction), the literary format of a dirge or funeral song serves his purposes (18:1, 14). Ironically, Ezekiel adapts this common ancient Near Eastern genre for his exilic audience. Just as he must mourn the death of the nation (due to their guilt and upcoming judgment), so too he mourns the deaths of the nation’s princes (due to their guilt and imminent judgment) from the line of David (18:1–9). Likewise, he mourns the demise of the entire dynasty (18:10–14). The use of the lament genre encourages Ezekiel’s audience against false hopes about the outcome for the nation. Death, not life, is in view.

19:1–9 Lament over Jerusalem’s guilty kings: A lament for the lion. This section of the lament specifically concerns Jehoahaz, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah, three out of four of Judah’s last kings. It makes use of lion imagery to speak of Israel’s princes or kings. The imagery harkens back to the portrayal of the tribe of Judah as a lion in Jacob’s blessing on his sons (Gen 49:9). To the tribe of Judah alone belongs royal authority. The lion suggests a symbol of irresistible strength. The Egyptians and Assyrians as well as Israel made use of the symbol. The “mother” might refer to the nation as a whole who produced the two kings in 19:1–9. “One of her cubs,” Jehoahaz, was initially a strong king but had oppressive policies (610–595 BC). This is cause for mourning because her “young lion” became trapped in one of his Egyptian campaigns into the Syria-Palestine region. Pharaoh Neco captured Jehoahaz and exiled him to Egypt, where he died. Another of her cubs, a “young lion,” was in trouble. The second cub may refer either to (1) Jehoiakim (609–598 BC; 2Kgs 23:21–24:7), who replaced Jehoahaz and reigned for three months before his exile to Babylon (2Kgs 24:8–16) and was Judah’s last legitimate ruler, or (2) Zedekiah, Judah’s present puppet king whom Nebuchadnezzar installed (597–587 BC; 2Kgs 24:16–20). The destiny of each king lies in their own hands. The soul that sins shall die, and Ezekiel mourns the losses. The irony of lamenting for the loss of a lion, a symbol of irresistible strength, strikes the reader.

19:10–14 Lament over David’s guilty dynasty: A lament for the vine. Mourning will take place over Zedekiah, the one responsible for bringing Judah to an end. The imagery for the princes of Israel changes from lion (19:1–9) to vine as the chapter ends (19:10–14; cf. 15:1–8; 17:5–10). Here, Zedekiah’s “mother,” designated “like a vine in the vineyard,” refers to the tribe of Judah, which produced kings from David to Zedekiah (cf. Gen 49:9–11). The Southern kingdom was fruitful and highly visible. However, the east wind made the vine shrivel, namely, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar (see note on 17:10). Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylonian army captured Zedekiah and placed him in Babylon, “a dry and thirsty land” in the east (2Kgs 25; Jer 52). In fact, “fire has gone out,” a symbol for Zedekiah’s uncontrolled rebellion (2Kgs 24:20), causing the final phase of the Judean kingdom. Ezekiel’s cause for mourning arises due to the upcoming removal of the Davidic dynasty in 586 BC. Everything promised to David is at risk: the removal of the right to rule, and the removal of that which represents staunch strength. This shows that God is no respecter of persons. He will by no means clear the guilty (Exod 34:7).²⁶

These two chapters show how the people reached a wrong verdict about their circumstances based on bad theology. Their inability to admit guilt reflects a weakness in their theology. By making one theological construct into an absolute, they denied another critical theological construct. As a result, they blamed others, wallowed in self-pity, and maligned God’s character. To accuse God of anything (that he is unjust, desires death not life, etc.) reflects the height of human arrogance. God holds his people accountable for bad theology, not only idolatrous behavior. Human logic and understanding need to come under the scrutiny of God’s Word. Accurate theological constructs matter. 

From a biblical-theological perspective, to emphasize corporate solidarity and federal headship would deny the force of Ezekiel’s voice. It would mute the divine perspective he offers about personal responsibility. As a priest he knew that imputation of guilt and righteousness are found in the ritual system. He does not attempt to reconfigure substitutionary atonement in the sacrificial system (i.e., one standing in the stead of others) but seeks to bring a theological equilibrium. The discussion in Ezekiel is not unlike that which Paul needs to have with the church in Rome. He assures imputed guilt (through Adam) and righteousness (through Christ) are theirs (i.e., federal headship; Rom 4–5). Yet personal responsibility remains necessary (Rom 6). The declaration that “the wages of sin is death” (Rom 6:23) represents the NT counterpart and an expansion of God’s paradigm in Ezekiel, “the one who sins is the one who will die” (Ezek 18:4). Those in Paul’s Roman audience who questioned the divine justice system receive a similar response from Paul about God as did Ezekiel’s audience: “What then shall we say? Is God unjust? Not at all!” (Rom 9:14). To take it further, he says that God is “just and the justifier” (Rom 3:26). In this regard Paul demonstrates that God does not delight in the death of the wicked nor anyone. “The cause of the atonement lies in God’s own pleasure (Isa 53:10) and love (John 3:16) . . . The condition in which Israel finds itself is precisely that of the world of Adam: hopeless and helpless, beyond cure, unable to recover from either the guilt and condemnation or the corruption of sin” (Horton, 510). 

We are in good company with the OT saints who struggled with and needed correctives about divine versus human justice. The accusations people inside the church make and have made about God sound like Ezekiel’s audience. When facing hardship due to sin, we take the path of least resistance. Rather than take an honest look at ourselves and scrutinize the theological constructs we build for ourselves, we speak wrongly about God and wallow in self-pity. We immediately question his fairness and think he delights in punishing people. Accurate theological constructs do matter. In fact, solid theology and a proper knowledge of God’s character go hand in hand. The latter provide us with an interpretive lens, which in turns give us the ability to make lifestyle changes as needed. We must be open to having our views of God’s character corrected either by the study and reading of the Word of God, or by a minister of God’s Word. Reaching a right verdict about our circumstances matters.

In the minds of Ezekiel’s audience, their current condition offers evidence of an unjust transference of guilt from one generation to the next (chs. 18–19). This supplies a segue for what unfolds in Ezekiel 20:1–44. Ezekiel’s hearers also hold wrong views about their ancestors and God’s interactions with previous generations. These skewed views provide the context for the walk down memory lane generated here from God’s perspective. This historical recollection confirms corporate solidarity as if to say to his audience, “You are partially right—your fathers did sin, and they are guilty of idolatry . . . but so is your generation.” Instead of their slogan, “our fathers have eaten sour grapes and our teeth are set on edge (18:2),” God’s slogan implicitly surfaces here—your fathers have eaten sour grapes, but so have you because you have followed in their footsteps! 

With respect to views about their ancestors, the Lord insists that ongoing rebellion marks their behavior regardless of God’s generous favors (20:5, 9, 10, 11). He communicates the sordid past of their “fathers” (20:4, 24, 27, 30, 36, 42), not the glory days. Simply put, they served vile images and idols; they did not serve the Lord. A pattern holds across the generations relative to servitude of vile images. With this wakeup call regarding their unattractive past, God jolts Ezekiel’s audience and probes, “Will you defile yourselves the way your ancestors did and lust after their vile images?” (20:30). Their latest conduct gives the answer. They are perpetuating the same narrative. This drives the Lord’s concession statement, “Go and serve your idols, every one of you” (19:39). In this regard, if the current generation found comfort in a “them vs. us” mentality and tried to disconnect from their past, God exposes the truth about a negative narrative, a narrative of self-imposed servitude far worse than what Egypt imposed.

With respect to views about how God handled the previous generations, the Lord reveals that ongoing patience marks his response (20:9, 14, 17, 22) regardless of their service to idols. He acted true to his character as a God who is “slow to anger” (Exod 34:6). He intentionally withheld divine justice for the sake of his reputation (Ezek 20:9, 14, 22) and to extend mercy (20:17). Accordingly, if the current generation presumed that God was too soft on their fathers, it exposes their own hypocrisy since they are just like their fathers. God also affirms that individuals in successive generations who continually “hate” him by not keeping his commands are guilty idolaters (Exod 20:5; Deut 5:9). They will not get away with it. He will act true to his character and show himself as a God who will “not clear the guilty” (Exod 34:7), which places Ezekiel’s audience on further notice. God sets the record straight on these matters. The echoes of three key texts from Torah (Exod 34:6–7; 6:2–8; Lev 18:3–4) help frame the divine viewpoint heavily laden with irony.

20:1–31 The past. The first section in this chapter (20:1–31) provides a big-picture perspective on how God confronted past generations of idolaters. He identifies historical cycles of idolatry from their origin in Egypt (20:5–9), to the first generation in the wilderness (20:10–17), to the second generation (20:18–26), those in Canaan (20:27–29), and right up to Ezekiel’s present audience (20:30–31). Each cycle exhibits a general pattern: rebellion, the nature of the rebellion, wrath threatened, but then divine justice withheld for the sake of God’s reputation among the nations. The withholding of divine justice enabled the fulfillment of his promises to the fathers to take shape. Each cycle concludes with a statement about God graciously giving something to his people so that they would acknowledge his Lordship. 

20:1–4 Confronting the exiled elders: Further idolatrous inquiries refused. Seven years into the exile (590 BC), Ezekiel gets a third house call from the elders (cf. 8:1; 14:1). This visit likely occurs within a year’s time of the others. As before, the elders wanted Ezekiel to provide a theological framework to comprehend their lives better. Perhaps this inquiry had something to do with the hope that they would experience a supernatural exodus from exile (20:33–38)? Perhaps they sought understanding of the past (20:4, 31)? Regardless of the unclear motive of their inquiry, God remains clear about his refusal to answer them yet again (20:3, 31). Why is this the case? Because the hearts of the leadership are still not in the right place as they seek the counsel of Ezekiel. Sadly, these leaders have not confronted their own idolatry as encouraged earlier by God (14:6). It seems they failed to take seriously the exhortation to repent and turn from their detestable practices between visits to the prophet (cf. 14:1–6). They remain hypocritical. Denial of the truth (about themselves and the Lord) continues to blind them and deter from a sound theological understanding of their circumstances. Ezekiel confronts both the elders and his exilic audience with the truth about the past so that they have a proper lens to interpret the present. As in a court of law, God asks Ezekiel to assume the role of judge (one of the many roles he assumes in the book; see Introduction) so that his audience might hear the dispute that God, the just Judge, brings forth. The confrontation shows that from the very beginning of their relationship with the Lord, the detestable practice of their ancestors manifested itself (20:4).

20:5–9 Confronting the Egyptian generation: Deliverance despite idolatry. Yahweh’s point of departure concerns the clear command he gave to their ancestors to “get rid of” and not to “defile” themselves with the idols of Egypt (20:7a). The Mosaic Covenant provides the backdrop for this: “you shall have no other gods before me” (Exod 20:1–3). Ezekiel routinely uses a Hebrew term gillulim, translated “idols” or “detestable things.” The term derives from the word for manure or dung, the natural pellet-shaped feces of sheep. The prophet’s unique usage reflects his demeanor towards such practices (cf. Ezek 6:4–7; 20:8, 16, 18, 24, 30–31; 22:9). God required they do away with such objects of improper worship. He frames the command with the divine claim “I am Yahweh your God” (20:5, 7b). This claim functions in important ways. First, it reflects the exclusive relationship God secured with “the descendants of Jacob” (20:5). This exclusive relationship came about because of a marvelous manifestation of his power over Egypt in the exodus. He alone rescued them and became their God. This demanded ditching idols and embracing the Lord. Second, the claim reflects the exclusive character of Yahweh. He promised deliverance and an inheritance in the land (20:5 [2x], 6). The gesture of a lifted hand accompanying his oath supplies reinforcement of that which he promised. God’s oath of old (mentioned three times here) and other oaths mentioned throughout the section provides a legal dimension to his interactions with the people (20:15, 23, 28, 42). His character was utterly reliable to do what he says (20:3, 31, 33). Because of who he is, he made things happen. Therefore, the powerful claim “I am Yahweh your God” that expresses exclusivity in a positive sense should have made it easy for their ancestors to discard idols. Rather than obey, however, they rebelled because they only had eyes for idols (20:7, 8). 

God reminds Ezekiel’s audience of how he responded to the disobedience of the “Egyptian generation.” God threatened to dispense his anger by calling off the long-awaited rescue mission from Egypt (20:8; so too 20:13, 21). He didn’t follow through, though. God acted and delivered them out of concern for his own reputation in the “eyes of the nations” (20:9; so too 20:14, 22) rather than based on Israel’s own merit. He withheld the deserved divine justice to allow his promises to come to pass (Gen 15:12–16). Thus, Israel’s idolatry goes back to the days when she lived under Egyptian servitude and got entangled with the gods of the land. For the visiting elders at Ezekiel’s home, the echoes of Exodus serve to heighten their own preference for other gods and their blatant disregard for the commandment “I am the Lord your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt; you shall have no other gods before me” (Exod 20:1–3; 6:2–8). God delivered their ancestors from Egyptian servitude despite their servitude to vile images.

20:10–26 Confronting the wilderness generations: Directives regardless of idolatry. Not only did he give the Egyptian generation deliverance (20:10), but he also gave them guidance in the wilderness through the Law. Leviticus 18:4–5 provides the backdrop for this section: “You must obey my laws and be careful to follow my decrees, I am the Lord your God. Keep my decrees and laws, for the person who obeys them will live by them. I am the Lord” (emphasis mine). The divine claim punctuates the Levitical command to obey God’s laws (cf. Exod 20). It equally provides a guarantee of the life-giving power associated with obedience (cf. Ezek 18:9). In Ezekiel 20 (vv. 19, 20, 26) God repeats this claim three times as he reminds of his purposes in giving such directives. God intended that his decrees, laws, and Sabbaths ²⁷ would provide sustenance to guide them in life (20:11, 12, 13a, 20, 21, 25). He also intended that those laws would transform his people and make them aware that “he made them holy” (20:12; cf. Lev 19:2). 

Rather than obey his commands, the first generation rebelled by rejecting God’s laws (20:13–20). The Sabbath laws were broken (20:13, 16, 21, 24). They refused his directives. This ensued as a direct result of hearts with affection for idols (20:16). God reminds Ezekiel’s audience of how he responded to the first wilderness generation who refused his guidance. He threatened to dispense his anger by destroying them in the wilderness (20:13; cf., Exod 32:10; Num 14:12). He also swore he would withhold the Promised Land (20:15). He didn’t follow through with either option for two reasons. First, he did not destroy them out of concern for his own reputation in the “eyes of the nations” (20:14). Second, out of compassion his “eye spared them” (20:17). His compassion kept him from expressing wrath (Exod 34:6; cf. Exod 33:19). Moreover, God gave specific guidance to their children (Ezek 20:18–20). God commands the second wilderness generation not to follow “the statutes of your parents” but to keep “my decrees,” “my laws,” “my sabbaths.” He provides a contrast between “my statutes” with “the statues of your fathers” so they might avoid mirroring the behavior of their parents. He punctuates these commands too with the divine claim “I am the Lord your God” (20:19, 20; cf. Lev 18:4–5). Rather than obey, the second generation also rebelled by rejecting God’s laws (20:21–26), in spite of God’s command and warning (20:18–20). They, too, refused his directives. 

God reminds Ezekiel’s audience how he responded to the second wilderness generation who refused his guidance. He threatened to dispense his anger on them (20:21) but withheld “his hand” of wrath out of concern for his reputation and to allow for his promises to come to pass (20:22; cf. 20:15). Although he restrained his hand, presumably by not destroying them, he provided another form of judgment. He gave them “other statutes” and “laws” that were “not good” and “through which they could not live” (20:25–26). The grammar suggests that the Lord gave life-giving decrees to the first wilderness generation to keep (20:11) but warned the second generation not to follow the decrees of the first generation (20:18). “In this way the life-giving decrees and ordinances of Yahweh became not-good and not-life-giving when mediated through the older generation” (following Schnittjer, 328). He warned the second generation not to follow the parents’ laws or risk defiling themselves (20:11, 18; following Schnittjer, 328). He punctuates this judgment with the divine claim to revelation: “So they would know that I am the Lord” (20:26). Ironically, they should have refused these directives. It is possible to interpret 20:25–26 and the “not good” statues and laws as an act of judgment. God gives them more of what they want. He gave them over to their idolatry consequently for their sin (Deut 4:28; cf. Rom 1:21–27; 2Thes 2:10–12). Instead of keeping God’s good laws, they followed pagan laws, which could produce only death. He abandoned them to their idolatry (20:25). Clearly then, God gave guidance to their ancestors regardless of the guidance they sought through their servitude to vile images and idols. 

20:27–31 Confronting the generation that lived in Canaan and current generation: No directives because of idolatry. As the walk down memory lane draws to a close, Ezekiel’s audience hears of rebellion in the Land of Promise (20:27–29). God describes specific acts of unfaithfulness akin to blasphemy (20:27). Their ancestors blasphemed him through child sacrifice (20:28, 31; see also 16:20), an act demonstrating deep devotion to and adoration of a deity. The fact that he isolates the most appalling act of child sacrifice reflects the depth of depravity to which they have plummeted (contrary to Deut 12:31; 18:9–11). It recalls the blatant rebellion of the Northern Kingdom. In the catalog of sins that brought the Northern Kingdom to an end, the narrator of the Book of Kings names child sacrifice (2Kgs 17:17). It also reminds of King Ahaz (2Kgs 16:3) and Manasseh (2Kgs 21:6) and their participation in this sin. Such actions aroused God’s anger, too, but instead of withholding wrath, it is about to be dispensed with the events of 586 BC. This is so because the defilements of the past are not a thing of the past. They are very much part of their present. God reminds that Ezekiel’s audience “to this day” are rebels (20:31, 38; see Introduction). The record of unbridled rebellion continues and includes the present idolatry of the exiles in Babylon (20:30–31). God will not give guidance and directives through Ezekiel because of their servitude to vile images and their compromised devotion (20:3, 31; cf. 14:1–8). Clearly, then, in Ezekiel 20:1–31, God shows that generation after generation persisted with idolatry. They bear responsibility. As Ezekiel confronts the elders, and by extension his broader audience, with the detestable practices of their ancestors, he holds up a mirror. The reflection shows the same sinful realities within the exilic community. Even still, what about the current generation in exile? What should they expect?

20:32–44 The present. In the second section of the chapter (20:32–44), God confronts the current generation in exile and warns of a face-to-face confrontation (20:32–38). He also assures of a new narrative in the future where God’s people are renewed for holy service on his holy mountain (20:39–44). Servitude to vile images will be a thing of the past and the people of Israel will “serve me” (20:40).

20:32–38 Confronting the current generation in exile: A face-to-face confrontation (an unexpected deliverance and directive). The current generation in exile should expect a direct encounter with God. Before spelling out this reality, however, a bit of irony ensues. In tongue-in-cheek fashion, God puts these words into the mouths of the exiles: “You say, ‘We want to be like the nations, like the peoples of the world, who serve wood and stone’” (20:32). Rather than resist the temptation to be “like the nations,” they fell into the trap (20:32; cf. 1Sam 8:5). This suggests a lack of awareness about their uniqueness and identity as a people of God (Exod 19:3–6). However, God will not entertain their idea. He maintains a staunch distinction. He will not tolerate a syncretistic worship system that blurs the lines of service between himself and idols. He draws the line in the sand (Ezek 20:32) and “swears” to orchestrate a deliverance through a purging that will end the revolt and rebellion (20:38). In what follows God describes the forthcoming purging process (20:33–38). He describes it as a supernatural manifestation of his power like the experience of their ancestors in Egypt but with an ironic and surprising twist. 

As an expression of his sovereign rule and authority over those who serve other gods, God as king confronts the rebels with an unexpected deliverance of sorts. He describes a powerful confrontation that includes the use of his hand, arm, and wrath to retrieve or “bring out” his people for judgment, not redemption (20:33, 34; cf. Exod 6:2–8). Their commitment to vile images causes him to effect an “exodus” from the servitude of idols. The place of the confrontation? “The wilderness of the nations,” which suggests a setting of wandering and death. What type of confrontation is in view? An up-close and extremely personal and direct encounter is suggested by the language of “face to face” (20:35). Although positive encounters with God utilize the same language (cf. Gen 32:30; Exod 33:11; Deut 5:4; 34:10; Judg 6:22), the use of the idiom here suggests something different. This “face to face” encounter allows God to scrutinize his people more carefully to detect the rebels. It concerns a time of vigilant examination and accountability. God is weighing their actions against the covenant, a legal document binding both God (20:5–6) and Israel (20:11–12) to a certain course of action. After scrutiny the king-shepherd makes his ruling to remove the rebels; they will not live in the land. The purge ends the slavish service to idols. This act will produce a revelation like that of his prior act of redemption: “then you will know that I am the Lord” (20:38; cf. Exod 6:2–8). With familiar imagery from Exodus turned on its head (Exod 6:2–8; 34:7), the Lord shocks the audience with an unexpected deliverance and guidance (out of Egypt and into the wilderness for judgment not redemption). The purging process allows for the possibility of a new narrative to emerge with a new generation. 

20:39–44 A new generation with a new narrative: Renewed for holy service on his holy mountain. God’s final statement in this historical recollection assures that although they did not listen to him prior about discarding idols (20:8), they will tire of serving them and listen to the Lord (20:39). Servitude to vile images will be a thing of the past, and the people of Israel will “serve me” (20:40). A new narrative will emerge with the stamp of holiness. This narrative will restore God’s holy name (reputation), which was damaged by the ongoing idolatry of the previous and current generations (20:9, 14, 22, 39, 41). The story unfolds on a sacred mountain, “On my holy mountain,” which refers to Jerusalem or Zion (see Ps 2:6; Isa 2:2–4; 27:13; 56:7; Jer 31:23). Because of the mountain’s height and location, “the high mountain of Israel,” the activities performed there are visible “in the sight of the nations” (20:41).²⁸ The narrative does not unfold in Egypt, the wilderness, nor in exile, but in “the land,” a location encompassed by his holiness (20:40). The type of service on this visible, holy mountain entails pure conduct offered through holy sacrifices (20:40). The sacrifices will meet God’s expectations because they are set apart solely for him (20:40). The nature of the sacrifices reflects a wholehearted devotion to the Lord not witnessed in the historical record recounted here. Moreover, God will accept the people themselves—“I will accept you”—like a pleasing sacrifice (20:41). Their holy service on a holy mountain will restore God’s holy reputation. All will witness the Lord’s sanctifying work.

When God establishes this level of holiness, acceptance, and devotion, it will produce two things. First, it produces a new self-awareness that was previously unknown. It generates a healthy response that acknowledges guilt and shame and doesn’t deny it, blame others, or blame God (20:43). Despite their misconduct God anticipates a narrative that corrects the problems of the past (20:44). The second thing this narrative produces is a new God-awareness: “I am the Lord” (20:42, 44). His people will reacknowledge him as their king and true Lord with whom they have covenantal obligations (20:42, 44). Thus, God outlines for Ezekiel’s audience the conditions in which a reversal of idolatry as the norm will create something new (20:40–44). The narrative anticipated here begins when God returns his people to Jerusalem (Ezra 1; 539 BC), through which he will be shown as holy (different from other gods) and faithful to his Word (20:42). This statement anticipates 539 BC but points beyond it to a more permanent restoration promised in the latter half of the book (chs. 34–48).

The walk down memory lane, from Egypt to Exile, represents God’s perspective about his people and his interactions with them. Rather than reject the “idols of Egypt” per God’s command (20:7, 8), they embraced them as “their idols” (20:16, 18). They also embraced “their parents’ idols” (20:24). And sadly, Ezekiel says to his exilic audience, “their vile images” (20:30) have become “your idols to this day” (20:31). The inability of God’s people to discard idols is directly connected to a blatant rejection of God’s Law. That initially “they did not listen to me” (20:8) turned into a paradigmatic behavior of utter rejection of his laws (20:13, 16, 21, 24, 27, 30). The connection between idolatry and law-keeping couldn’t be clearer, a warning first issued by Moses (Deut 4; 30:17; 31:20). Their eyes and hearts were not attuned to the Lord but “devoted to their idols” (20:16). They served idols, not the Lord. The irony, of course, is that the hard servitude of their ancestors under Egyptian bondage gets replaced with service to idols. Not even the Old Testament Law and the Commandments “worked.” The Law was not enough to change unholy, idolatrous hearts! The chapter also shows the longevity of the idolatry problem. The story of the Canaanization of the people of God continues (cf. ch. 16). Their past merits no pride. God’s perspective sets the record straight.

Likewise, he presents a view of himself consistent with his character in how he handled their fathers and them. On the one hand, mercy triumphs over judgment. God withholds divine justice. He does so to allow his promises to their fathers to come to pass (out of Egypt and inheriting the land). On the other hand, justice will triumph over mercy. Once he makes good on his promises, the divine gavel comes down, and justice is served. He reveals himself in this negative narrative as a God who is slow to anger but who will by no means clear the guilty (Exod 34:6–7). 

This historical recollection points backward to the days of Joshua. Joshua’s charge to the second generation of Israelites and his warning prepares for Ezekiel 20. Joshua calls his audience to discard “The gods your ancestors served beyond the Euphrates River and in Egypt and to serve the Lord” (24:14, 23). He also calls for them to make a conscious decision to serve the Lord and not “the gods your ancestors served nor the gods of the Amorites, in whose land you are living” (24:15). The basis for these decisions concerns God’s great acts on their behalf and their ancestors (deliverance and inheritance of the land). Joshua exhorts that the claim of the first generation, “he is my God” and “my father’s god” (Exod 15:1–3), become the claim of his generation, to which they respond, “We too will serve the Lord, because he is our God” (24:16, 18, 21, 24). However, Joshua dampens the moment with a sobering statement: “You are not able to serve the Lord. He is a holy God; he is a jealous God” (Josh 24:19). Ezekiel 20 bears witness to the reality of Joshua’s words. 

Later biblical writers such as Daniel, Ezra, and Nehemiah offer their human perspectives about Israelite history. It seems that God’s perspective outlined in Ezekiel 20:1–44 influenced their lens of interpretation. Yahweh’s character (Exod 34:6–7), particularly his mercy, provides the interpretive lens through which they explain the past to their present audiences compromised by idolatry (cf. Ezra 9; Neh 9; Dan 9). These writers show the connection between law-breaking and idolatry. They acknowledge that rejection of God’s Law requires a divine confrontation. Aware of the divine justice served through the exile, these authors attempt to steer their audiences in the right direction to avoid further negative encounters with God.

Indeed, Ezekiel 20 helps us understand an aspect of Jesus in the New Testament. For this reason, Jesus heaps judgment on the religious leaders in a similar way as Yahweh’s words do to the elders in Judah. One can understand Jesus’s hard stance toward and confrontational approach against the religious leaders of his day. The religious leaders rejected Jesus (the Living Word), but ironically, they claimed to follow the Law, which their own ancestors rejected. Jesus’s confrontation with these people reveals that the idolatry of their ancestors continued (cf. Stephen in Acts 7:43ff). God’s people then and now cannot discard vain idols. As with the saints of the OT, the Law was not enough to change idolatrous hearts. 

From a pastoral perspective we must strive to have God’s perspective of the past. We are amazingly adept at contextualizing and repeating the sin patterns of our spiritual forebears in our own cultural contexts today. We must face the truth about the past to have a proper lens for the present. Ezekiel 20:1–44 forces us to ask hard questions. What kind of narrative are we perpetuating? Do we possess a hypocrisy that creates a “them vs. us” mentality? In what ways do we shun God’s deliverance through Jesus and the directives he gives through his Word? The passage causes us to evaluate our own hearts. Are we serving two masters? If so, we must choose this day whom we shall serve.

After the walk down memory lane promising a face-to-face confrontation (20:1–44), Ezekiel’s audience gets a vivid picture through the voracious sword oracle. It consists of five sections (20:45–49; 21:1–7, 8–17, 18–27, 28–32).²⁹ Through heavy use of personification, the reader feels the sword’s threat on whom it is unsheathed. As a metaphor for war, the sword represents Yahweh’s primary agent of destruction for the final confrontation that will take place in 586 BC. Along with wild beasts, plague, and famine, the “sword” is one of the items at the Lord’s disposal in his four-fold package of destruction (Deut 28:24; 32:22). The repetition of the word hereb for “sword” (15x) along with the use of the possessive pronoun “my sword” (Ezek 21:3, 4, 5) elevates it as an instrument of judgment. The voracious sword targets Jerusalem and her king due to their guilt (cf. 9:1–11).

20:45–49 A consuming fire. Ezekiel is to set his face in opposition toward a southward geographical orientation. He must preach, prophesy, and speak to the south (Teman and Darom) and the forest of the south (Negev). The setting of the face mirrors Yahweh’s sentiment of hostility and opposition expressed elsewhere (e.g., 6:2; 13:17; 21:1; 25:2; 28:21; 29:2; 35:2). Yahweh will start a fire in the area (20:47). The uncontrollable nature of the blaze means total devastation. It will consume all trees (green and dry, south to north; 20:47). The nature of the fire assures a broad revelation—all will see Yahweh as the source. Although it sounds as if the blaze is real, the fire refers to an expression of divine anger (21:31). God’s anger expresses itself through language of a metaphorical fire (cf. Deut 28:2; Jer 15:5; Isa 10:11–19). However, Ezekiel’s audience doesn’t understand him. They chide him for his lack of clarity in communication and dub him as a “rattler of riddles” (20:49) rather than acknowledge “that a prophet has been among them” (2:5). Ezekiel cries out in anguish to the Lord as a result of the scope of devastation promised and the people’s inability to understand it (20:49; cf. 4:14; 9:8; 11:13). The Lord immediately assists Ezekiel with an interpretation that takes the mystery out of the metaphor. In what follows Yahweh offers a clear communication they likely will not forget (21:1–32). 

21:1–7 An unsheathed sword. In response to the grieved prophet, God interprets the metaphorical fire for Ezekiel’s audience. The parallel statements in 20:45–48 and 21:1–5 make it obvious that the fire represents the Lord’s sword of warfare (so too Block, 668). What was general in 20:45–48 about a forest fire in the south becomes specific in 21:1–5. Ezekiel is to set his face against Jerusalem, the sanctuary, and the land of Israel (the south). He must preach, prophesy, and speak to these entities. Yahweh will unsheathe his sword. The voracious nature of the sword means total devastation. The sword will devour all, (“the righteous and the wicked, everyone from south to north,” 21:3–4). The nature of the sword assures a broad revelation; “all people will know” Yahweh as its source. Ezekiel’s communication becomes clearer for his audience.

At such news about the voracious sword, God asks Ezekiel to “groan” in front of his audience (21:7 [3x]; cf. 24:14). God asks him to demonstrate outwardly the emotional turmoil that awaits them. The turmoil will touch “every” heart, hand, and spirit. The effects will be fearful hearts, limp hands, and a faint spirit. The nature of the emotional unrest will leave people with the inability to control natural bodily functions—“every leg will be wet with urine.” His grief models total emotional devastation. The trauma associated with the news of the sword reminds of the scroll Ezekiel ate (2:10). The scroll promised lamentation, mourning, and woe. Thus, in line with his mourning role (he became what he ate, a mourner), Ezekiel outwardly mourns in anticipation of the final attack on Jerusalem. The Jerusalem invasion will involve grief, pain, and suffering (21:6–7, 12, 14), portrayed in Ezekiel’s responses. No one will escape the military battle by the Babylonians in 586 BC. Ezekiel assures its arrival (21:7). 

21:8–17 A sharp and deadly sword: A time of mourning and testing. The description of the sword with its razor-like readiness creates an atmosphere of dread as it is made ready for the hand of an unidentified slayer. Yahweh’s sharp and polished sword will prevail over the scepter (cf. 19:11, 14). The term “scepter” functions as a metonymy for kingship. Based on the promises to Jacob (Gen 49:10) and to David (2Sam 7:12–16), they would not have expected an end to Judah’s political power. But it is not a time to rejoice and cling to such promises. It is a time to mourn and grieve because the reigning king of David’s house cannot escape judgment. For this reason, Ezekiel is commanded to act like a mourner yet again and to wail and beat his breast because the sword’s destination targets “my people” and “all the princes of Israel” (21:12). Their inability to understand theologically what is happening together with their hardness of heart causes God to command deep groans, cries, and wails of Ezekiel. God tries to awaken their spiritual and theological sensitivities through Ezekiel’s actions. Thus the sword ushers in a time of mourning (21:12). The sword will also usher in a time of testing for the royal house of David (21:13). Will the scepter really come to a full end? Will kingship be removed permanently? The rhetorical question “what if even the scepter . . . does not continue?” (21:13) looms large given the sharp and polished sword. The future of the kingdom hangs in the balance, and the next section addresses the issue.

21:18–27 The sword wielded. Yahweh now authorizes the use of the sword. He places it in the hands of the king of Babylon (21:11). In Ezekiel 21:18–23 the prophet role-plays once again (cf. Ezek 4–5). He maps out the military campaign of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar. Faced with a military choice to attack either an Ammonite or Judean city, the king seeks an omen for divine advice (21:21). He gets his guidance through Babylonian omen-seeking, which involved arrows, idols, and the liver. Apparently, the arrows were labeled (e.g., “Rabbah,” “Jerusalem”) and placed into a quiver and drawn out, one with each hand. The “right hand” selection identified the direction; hence, the good omen (see 21:22). Idols or cultic objects (“household gods”) were also consulted (see Hos 3:4; Zech 10:2). Line patterns on sheep livers were observed to indicate a certain course of action, a common practice in ancient Babylonia and Rome (known as hepatoscopy). Taken together the luck of the draw fell to Jerusalem, despite their staunch unbelief regarding the city’s demise (21:23; cf. 2Chr 36:13). Nebuchadnezzar will pay a visit to Jerusalem at this time. The city will undergo siege, and its inhabitants will be captured. The Babylonian king’s “guidance,” though, is governed by the sovereign God who handed over his sword to Nebuchadnezzar. Ironically, God’s people stand guilty of rebellion before the king of Babylon (21:23–24), as does their king, Zedekiah (21:25), whom Ezekiel singles out next for special attention.

21:24–27 draws attention to Zedekiah by the way he describes him as “O profane one, wicked prince of Israel.” Ezekiel speaks of him as defiled and as one whose end draws near. The end of his royal status expresses itself in the removal of the turban and crown. He no longer possesses the right to wear kingly attire (21:25–27; Exod 28:36–37; 29:6; 39:31; Isa 62:3). Jerusalem no longer possesses the right to kingship, a clear reversal of the norm (Ezek 17:24; 1Sam 2:7–8). In fact, a temporary interruption of the promises of God relative to Davidic kingship is in view with the fall of Jerusalem (Ezek 21:25–27; see ch. 34). It is a time to mourn and a time of testing because from all appearances it seems that the sword will overcome the scepter. This would have sent a shockwave to Ezekiel’s audience given the promises about kingship relative to the tribe of Judah (Gen 49:10; Ps 2:6; Jer 23:5–6; Ezek 37:24; Zech 6:12–15). The crown will be held in reserve until the task of judgment is carried out by the king of Babylon (Block, 692).³⁰

21:28–29 The Taunt of the Sword. The final section of the sword oracle consists of two sections. The first (21:28–29) seems to reflect a “taunt” by the Ammonites directed toward Judah (following Block 695–96). Once Ammon learns that Nebuchadnezzar was headed for Jerusalem and not Rabbah (21:21–22), they rejoice. Their “song of rejoicing,” however, sounds strangely familiar to Ezekiel’s sword oracle “a sword, a sword” when he announces the 586 BC judgment against Jerusalem (21:9–10). “The rhetorical strategy is impressive. No longer is it only the voice of the prophet announcing Israel’s doom; even the nation’s enemies have picked up the tune” (Block, 696). The voice of the enemy concerning the voracious sword (21:28) reinforces the voice of God (21:9). Although the Ammonites and their capitol, Rabbah, are spared the sword at this time, Ammon will have a day when they would feel the effects of Nebuchadnezzar’s sword (cf. 25:1–7). 

21:30–31 The sword sheathed and judged. The second section (21:30–32) announces the final trajectory of the sword. After it has done its deed with respect to Jerusalem, it returns to its sheath and to its land of origin (21:30), where its own end is envisioned. This completes the story of the unsheathed sword that begins in 21:3. Nebuchadnezzar’s actions were guided from beginning to end by Yahweh (cf. Isa 44:28). The closing verses anticipate the real end of the story: the sword, which represented the Babylonians, will experience the Lord’s wrath. Babylon will be handed over to the enemy and destroyed (Ezek 21:32). They will be “fuel for the fire” (21:32). This will happen only after God uses the Babylonians to destroy Jerusalem (Jer 50:15, 27, 29, 31; 51:6; Hab 2:4–20; cf. Isa 10:5–19). The voracious sword oracle ends as it began with fire expressing Yahweh’s anger on Jerusalem but now on Babylon.

Ezekiel’s sword oracle shows that God uses the nations to judge his own people and then judges the nations. God is no respecter of persons. The sharpened sword falls on guilty people, those who are his enemies. Kings and kingdoms will fall by the Lord’s sword that he creates, unsheathes, and places in the appropriate hands. The sword is Yahweh’s instrument of judgment.

Yahweh’s sword in Ezekiel anticipates Christ’s sword in the Book of Revelation as a means of correction and warfare. In the first instance, “one like the son of man” possesses a sharp two-edged sword in his mouth and threatens war with it to the church in Pergamum if they don’t have a lifestyle change (Rev 1:12–16; 2:12–17). Used metaphorically, the sword (associated with the word of God by virtue of its position in his mouth) brings correction in this case. In the second instance, those outside the covenantal community and who continue as God’s enemies will face the sword as judgment unto death. The rider of the white horse in Revelation designated “Faithful and True” possesses in his mouth a sharp sword ready to wield on the nations and upon the kings of the earth who make war against him (19:11–21). Even though the kings of the earth will make war on the Lamb, the Lamb will conquer them (Rev 17:14). The sword of Christ will overcome the kingdoms of this world. The sword brings spiritual death in this case. God also places into the hands of believers “the sword of the Spirit, which is the Word of God” (Rev 6:17). Believers wield the sword and engage in a battle that is now spiritual with the enemy. Thus, God has created a tool for Christ-followers to overcome the evil one. Indeed, the Book of Hebrews compares the Word of God to a physical sword (Heb 4:12). The sharpness of God’s Word, however, surpasses that of a two-edged sword. This tool of spiritual warfare penetrates deep and judges the human heart.

The topic of Israel’s guilt continues to shape Ezekiel’s discussion. From the covenantal perspective, guilt provides the legal rationale for the demise of the city, a topic discussed heavily in chapters 16–23. In the final two chapters of this section (chs. 22–23), Ezekiel takes on the role of judge, one of his many roles in the book (cf. 20:4; 22:2; 23:36). His charge is “sin in the city.” The attention in chapter 22 lies more with social violations and less with religious violations. Sin manifests itself largely through corruption of political power discussed as bloodshed and violence (22:31). In chapter 23, through the metaphor of a sexual addiction, Ezekiel highlights another prevailing problem in Israel’s history. God’s people relied on unauthorized military alliances and the political prowess of the nations for help rather than trust in him. He describes such partnerships with the shocking language of whoredom, prostitution, and adultery (23:1–49). In these matters ongoing and escalating guilt mark their history (22:3–4; 23:49). The root cause of both political corruption and military reliance involves forgetting God (22:12; 23:35). God promises to put an end (22:15; 23:27, 48) to all of it because of the inability of his people to manage the problem. Accordingly, Jerusalem will experience the fiery furnace of God’s fury (22:13–22, 30–31) and the shame of exposure (23:22–49).

22:1–16 Jerusalem: A corrupt city with corrupt politicians. In this section the prophet names bloodshed as Jerusalem’s characteristic sin (22:3,4,6,9,12,13). This does not necessarily refer to taking life physically but to harming and exploiting people through power (22:6), hence the designation “bloody city” (22:2).³¹ Ezekiel also dubs Jerusalem as “defiled of the Name” (22:5). In Hebrew the designation “defiled of the Name” substitutes השׁם for YHWH (יהוה), suggesting that Jerusalem’s sins have defiled Yahweh’s holy name (following Cooper, 217). Both of these designations capture one’s immediate attention at the opening of Ezekiel’s indictment in 22:1–5. The city earned this reputation because it allowed itself to house uncleanness. The repetition of the phrase “in you” (22:6, 7 [2x], 9 [2x], 10 [2x], 11, 12) portrays the city as a receptacle for sin (22:6–12). Jerusalem is “sin city,” a dirty container housing defilement. The long list of fourteen items suggests the city is filled to the brim and overflowing with defilement. Uncleanness, that which separates one from the Lord, manifests itself through abuse of power. It knows no end. Sadly, the abuse of power by political leaders (“princes of Israel”) provided an entry point that enabled the situation to perpetuate itself (so too 7:27; 19:1; 21:12, 25; 45:9). Yahweh summarizes how they came to this place: “You have forgotten” me (22:12; cf. Deut 6:10–25). To forget Yahweh directly affects his reputation and character because attached to the city’s reputation was Yahweh’s (cf. Ezek 20:39; 36:20–23; 39:8). The Lord has had enough of it. He indicates intolerance by striking his hands together in mournful anger (22:13; cf. 1:14; 6:11). He will deal with Jerusalem’s corrupt leadership through the events of 586 BC (22:14–15). Their stubborn resolve and ongoing guilt (22:14) offer no match for Yahweh’s resolve. Since they do not possess the ability to put an end to their out-of-control behavior, he declares, “I will put an end to your uncleanness” (22:16). 

22:17–22 Jerusalem: A corrupt people feel the heat. This section provides a more vivid picture of how God will “put an end” to the city’s corruption. He promises a purging. God declares that the people are as useless to him as the by-products of metals undergoing the refining process (22:18; so too 15:1–8). His people require the refiner’s fire, metaphorically speaking (cf. Isa 1:22, 25; Jer 9:7; Zech 13:9; Mal 3:2–3). He vows personally to “gather” (3x in Ezek 22:19, 20, 21) all the “dross” to one locale. This shows that God initiates the purification process. The repeated prepositional phrase and its variants “in you” (22:19, 20, 21, 22) amplify the geographical location of the event. These phrases, likewise, underscore the depiction of Jerusalem as a receptacle for sin noted previously (22:1–16). Ironically, Jerusalem, where sin festered, functions like a furnace. The heat of God’s anger will burn to rid the city of its impurities in this severe and atypical purification process (Isa 1:22–25; Jer 6:27–30). When the Babylonians destroy the city in 586 BC as God’s punishment for sin, the people will feel the heat of divine purification. Jerusalem becomes God’s melting pot through the fiery furnace of his wrath (22:20, 21, 31).

22:23–31 Jerusalem: A corrupt society feels the heat. Jerusalem as “a land” needs to be cleansed (22:24). The land refers to the impure city and people collectively and Judean society more broadly. As above (22:17–22), the repetition of the prepositional phrase “within” (22:25 [2x]; 27) keeps all eyes on internal matters. It addresses the breadth of internal issues in society through its leadership. The extent and systematic nature of their corruption cuts through the covenantal administrative leadership structures. Accordingly, her princes,³² priests, government officials, and prophets negatively influenced society and abused their leadership roles (cf. 7:23–27). Her “princes,” or nobility (cf. 19:3, 6), left people victimized financially and socially; priests misrepresented God (Lev 10:10–11); government officials mishandled finances; and false prophets misguided. The mention of these four leadership categories shows both the invasive and pervasive nature of the problem. Tragically, poor leadership trickled down to “the people of the land” (the citizens of the land) who, on a horizontal level, conducted everyday business like their leaders (22:29). 

Perhaps most arresting concerns Yahweh’s sentiments about what follows. He declares that “I sought a man . . . who would build up the wall and stand before me in the gap . . . that I should not destroy it, but I found no one” (22:30; cf. Gen 18:22–33; Exod 32:11–14). The statement reveals much about Yahweh as well as the grave situation that exists in the land. First, the fact that he looked for this man suggests the divine desire is not to destroy (cf. Ezek 18). Second, the fact that he looked for but could not find one reflects the profound deficit in the leadership. Third, given the abysmal leadership situation, he was forced to conduct his search from among “the people of the land” (22:29, 30). His hope was that “among them” (22:30), those outside the corrupt leadership structures, he could garner just one person to help.³³

The kind of help God sought was godly leadership to keep Judean society in check. If the princes, priests, officials, and prophets were functioning according to God’s Law, then a line of defense would have been in place. The land would have been fortified with people speaking out against evil and practicing justice. No “gap” would exist between God’s standards and theirs. The covenantal community would experience a blessing rather than come under the threat of God’s judgment. However, there was no one to help avert the destruction. The city is defenseless. Poor leadership together with the fact that no one was speaking out against the evil in the city (see 13:5 and the intended role of the prophets; cf. Ps 106:23) shows the weakness in the system. The selection of the wall image likely has 586 BC in mind, when Nebuchadnezzar and his troops penetrated the city. This pictures a vulnerable city, open to attack because of a broken wall. Thus, Ezekiel 22:30 represents God’s sentiment and response to the leadership vacuum. Sadly, the land was bereft of anything good, not cleansed, and suitable only for a cleansing through God’s fiery wrath (22:31). The fiery furnace of God’s wrath will put an end to the uncleanness of the land (22:15, 24).

23:1–49 The struggle with a sexual addiction. The ongoing, ungovernable picture of sin and guilt continues with this allegory of two sisters who represent the cities of Samaria and Jerusalem. By forging political alliances with pagans, they prostituted themselves (22:1–35). Ezekiel shows their strong dependence on foreign nations with language related to lust, sexual addiction, and unfaithfulness (22:36–49; see ch. 16). Samaria’s addiction was problematic, but Jerusalem’s was worse (22:11, 14). Her promiscuity escalated with no end in sight (22:19), and her passions were so out of control that not even what happened to Samaria fazed her. As with the uncleanness (political corruption) described in chapter 22 (v. 15), only divine intervention could stop their sexual addiction (23:27).

23:1–4 Two sisters struggling with sexual addictions. Ezekiel introduces us to two sisters who, even before sharing their names, disclose that from their youth they had similar problems (23:1–4). Given they come from the same mother, they were given the same opportunities. They spent their youth in Egypt. Egypt features prominent in this chapter and creates a conceptual framework for the story to unfold (23:3, 8, 19, 21, 27 [2x]). In Egypt both started off on the wrong track by engaging in prostitution. Meet Oholah, the eldest, and her younger sibling, Oholibah, two sisters struggling with sexual addictions. Ezekiel uses graphic language to underscore the struggle: “they allowed their breasts to be handled . . . and their nipples to be caressed” (23:4). This was problematic because they belonged to Yahweh (23:4), a veiled reference to the marriage covenant at Sinai (Exod 6:6–7). Evidence of their illicit relationship concerns the fact they birthed sons and daughters. The story then removes the mystery and indicates that Oholah represents Samaria, the capital of the Northern Kingdom. Oholibah represents Jerusalem, the capital of the Southern Kingdom. He uses the two capital cities for comparison and contrast of behavior, but the whole nation and its struggle is represented. 

23:5–10 Samaria’s struggle with sexual addiction. The story commences first with Samaria, the eldest, and a brief recollection of her past. Samaria was the eldest in that she was the first to go wayward religiously and politically (1Kgs 12:25–33; Hos 8:9). Even though the city of Samaria and its end was a thing of the past, recounting its end and the reason for it provides a critical comparison with sister Jerusalem’s saga in what follows (chs. 11–34). What started in her youth in Egypt continued throughout Oholah’s history. Samaria’s addiction continued with the Assyrians, a partner with whom Samaria made political alliances (23:5–10). Now one understands Ezekiel’s use of sexually suggestive language to describe political prostitution. In her youth with Egypt³⁴ and later in life with the Assyrians (23:3, 8), an unhealthy codependence and attraction developed with foreign nations. The strong sexual language shows how it offended God. Samaria committed prostitution “while she was still mine,” says the Lord (23:5), a flagrant violation of the covenantal relationship. The language also shows the escalating and ongoing nature of Samaria’s addiction (23:8). But God intervened. He made Samaria’s “lovers” turn on her. The Assyrians captured the city and deported the people in 722 BC (2Kgs 15–17). Samaria’s story provides proof of the unruly nature of God’s people. They lack the ability to put a stop to their own foolish behavior of reliance on others for help, rather than trusting in the Lord. 

23:11–21 Jerusalem’s struggle with sexual addiction. The story now turns to Jerusalem. Jerusalem is depicted as the sibling because she foolishly followed the addictions of her sister. Jerusalem was enticed by the power of the Assyrians (see Isa 7) to help solve her political problems (23:11–13). But the Chaldeans (Babylonians) also enticed Jerusalem. She looked to this military power for help at another juncture in their history (Ezek 23:14–21; cf. 2Kgs 23). Hopeful that alliances with Babylon would help to solve her problems, Judah metaphorically got into bed with Babylon (23:14–18) when Babylon conquered Assyria in 610–605 BC. Judah attempted to solve her own problems through international diplomacy (2Kgs 23:29–24:20). But Jerusalem’s new partner abandoned and defiled her (2Kgs 23:29–30). The language of a lover’s cold-hearted abandonment reflects how God “abandoned” his people through the military takeovers of the Assyrians and Babylonians.

In these ways, the story shows that Jerusalem’s addiction surpassed Samaria’s (23:14). God mocks her relentless pursuit of looking for “love” in all the wrong places (other nations) with a gross and exaggerated description of her lover’s reproductive organs (23:19–21). Again, her youth in Egypt provides the reference point for their out-of-control behavior described now as “more and more promiscuous” (23:19, 21). Their continual desire to return to the days of their youth in Egypt revealed a codependence/addiction God would not tolerate. The story is told from the perspective of a longing for Egypt but with a surprising twist. Early in their history, they longed for the good food, accommodations, and protection Egypt offered (Exod 16:3; 17:3; Num 14:2–4). God graciously provided food, water, and protection in the wilderness. Later in their history, they longed for the lewdness of their youth in Egypt (Ezek 23:21, 27). No matter how one looks at it, God’s people had an appetite for Egypt. The contrasting appetite for Egypt mentioned here shocks but prepares the listener for the outcome of the story for Jerusalem in what follows. 

23:22–35 The end of Jerusalem’s struggle with sexual addiction: Shame and exposure. Although Jerusalem could not quench her insatiable appetite for love (a codependence on Egypt, Assyria, Babylon), God would take the initiative and end her political prostitution (23:27). He vows, “I will put a stop to the lewdness and prostitution you began in Egypt. You will not look on these things with longing or remember Egypt anymore” (23:27). He directs his jealous anger against them by stirring up Jerusalem’s lovers (23:25). He gives his people more of their longing but with an ironic twist: Jerusalem’s lovers will come not to love on her but to abuse her (23:22–35). Jerusalem will experience nakedness and shame as a result. This particular language depicts the punishment for adultery, which included stripping an adulterous wife naked to expose in public what she had done in private. The events of 586 BC demonstrate that the Babylonians similarly stripped Jerusalem and Judah of everything valuable and exposed them to their own shame (23:29). As one might expect, Jerusalem’s end will mirror that of Samaria’s (23:21). Samaria “drank” the cup of God’s wrath, and soon God will pass the cup to Jerusalem (23:31). 

The cup represents God’s anger. Just as a cup filled with wine intoxicates and causes people to stagger, so too the cup filled with the wine of God’s wrath will deeply affect the one drinking (see Pss 16:5; 75:9; Isa 51:17, 22; Jer 25:15). The poetic description of the cup’s size and content draws attention to the immensity of God’s wrath. Likewise, the effect on the one drinking is serious. It entails public scorn. Those who see Jerusalem’s drunkenness will mock her (see Isa 37:22–29; Jer 25:15–29). Other effects include sorrow and an attempt to find relief (Ezek 23:34). Breasts and nipples that were once fondled for pleasure (23:3, 8, 21) will be torn in anguish, a sign of mourning (23:34; so too 21:12). Why did Jerusalem go down this path even with the example of Samaria before her? They scorned God’s love by forgetting him (23:35; cf. 22:12). He will not tolerate such forgetfulness in the relationship and holds them to account. Accordingly, a court room scene concludes the story of the two sisters, where we learn of their arraignment and sentencing. 

23:36–49 The end of the struggle of sexual addictions for both sisters. The arraignment and sentencing of Oholah and Oholibah take place as a conclusion to chapters 20–22, where Ezekiel’s role as judge features prominently (23:36; so too 20:4; 22:2). Even though Samaria had already undergone her judgment, the arraignment and sentencing of both parties show God’s unified front towards his people’s addiction. Here the prophet addresses their combined political and religious prostitution in a straightforward and conventional manner rather than continue with the use of allegory (23:36–49). He designates their customs as “detestable practices” (23:36) and enumerates seven specific abominations. Although the abomination list does not surprise at this point, the effects of sexual misconduct do. They beautified themselves to attract more and more lovers, and it worked (Jer 4:30; 2Kgs 9:30). The invitation to lovers from all walks of life to engage them sexually wore them out (Ezek 23:40, 42). In God’s concluding statements in the arraignment, he addresses them as “the one worn out by adultery” (23:43). The language of “worn out” suggests uncontrolled sexual indiscretions that led to sheer exhaustion. 

The judge’s gavel comes down on the conduct of Oholah and Oholibah: guilty as charged with two crimes of adultery and murder (23:45). They face the death penalty as the sentence proscribed by Mosaic Law (Lev 26:16–17; Deut 13:10; 17:5; 22:21, 24; 28:66–67; 32:25). Their judgment by “righteous judges” comes by way of a “mob” stoning them to death, killing with the sword, and burning houses (Ezek 23:46–47). Through the Babylonians God’s people would feel the effects of his judgment. In conclusion, God vows to bring an end to the uncontrolled passions in Samaria and Jerusalem (23:27, 48): “I will put an end to the lewdness in the land” (23:48) with the goal of warning and deterring all women (i.e., other cities) tempted to follow in the footsteps of Samaria and Jerusalem. An end to sin will come as an act of divine justice, but only by God’s initiative (23:45–49). Chapter 24 will illustrate this reality with the announcement of the siege on the city, the beginning of the end for Jerusalem (24:1–2).

The portrait that emerges about Jerusalem in these two chapters haunts the reader. It vividly describes Jerusalem’s abusive leadership through imagery of violence and bloodshed, and her unsatiable reliance on others for help through the metaphor of a sexual addiction. Their relentless pursuit of power together with forging military alliances demonstrates they forgot God. He will not allow Jerusalem’s unruly conduct to continue. He manages the situation for them. God initiates and declares his ability to bring an end to all of it through his righteous judgment on the city in 586 BC. Ezekiel points to the reality that the people of God will always be tempted to forget him. The prophet forces us to ponder if we are abusing our positions for power and selfish gain. Isn’t godly leadership meant to fortify the church and to challenge it by speaking out against evil and injustice within its walls? An end to addiction to sin will come as an act of divine justice, but only by God’s initiative. God opposes the proud but gives grace to the humble (Prov 6:17; 1Pet 5:5; Jas 4:6). 

Ezekiel forces us to ponder our own addictions. An addiction indicates reliance, an alternate means for assistance. Waving the Christian flag together with political and national flags may represent a failure to trust the Lord for help. Political entities and their claim to save from all societal ills offer a false sense of security. Their transitory nature reflects their inability to deliver as a true source of guidance or assistance. Are we, too, trusting in government rather than God? Through the cyclical weakening or fall of political entities, God teaches the church universal to rely only on him. 

Ezekiel also challenges us to consider our own addictions that keep us from relying on God. Enticement and desire come to us and, when fully grown, bring about death rather than life. We must cling to the cross of Jesus (Jas 1:14–15; Gal 5:16; 2Tim 2:22; 1Jn 2:16). The cross causes us to be utterly and completely dependent on God. A reliance on the cross enables us to manage our addictions; without it they know no end. At the cross sin is confronted as an act of divine justice, by God’s initiative. Jesus drinks the cup of God’s wrath on our behalf and absorbs punishment for our unfaithfulness (Luke 22:42; Matt 26:39; 42). At the cross he washes away our shame and guilt (cf. Isa 53:10; 54:4; Rom 8:1; 1Cor 6:11; Heb 9:14; 1Jn 1:9).

The city takes center stage in this chapter. Chapter 24 is a series of five shocking announcements: the news of the city’s siege (24:2), the death of Ezekiel’s wife (24:16), the end of the sanctuary (24:21), the news from the fugitive (24:26), and the news Ezekiel will speak again (24:27). All these announcements illustrate the surety of God’s Word and validate Ezekiel’s prophetic role. Chapter 24 also functions as a book end with chapter 4, with Ezekiel’s dramatic performances about the city framing the section (4:1–24:27). The promised siege predicted earlier (4:1–17) has come to pass (24:1–2). The announcement of Jerusalem’s siege (24:1–2) and the two woe oracles that follow communicate the city’s vulnerability (24:6–8, 9–14). It no longer remains impregnable and thus shatters any sense of confidence. Along with notification of the siege, the Lord notifies Ezekiel that his wife is about to die (24:16). This shocking news followed by her immediate death represents a sign of the sanctuary’s end (24:15–27). The temple will no longer stand and remain a source for their pride and joy. The prediction of the end of their beloved sanctuary together with the imminent end of the city proves the weakness of their faulty theological system about the city and temple. The chapter shows that neither will escape God’s wrath.

24:1–2 Announcement #1: Jerusalem, a besieged city. Ezekiel’s ministry commenced with a “sign” reflecting the siege on the city (4:3). Now God tells Ezekiel that Babylon has laid siege to Jerusalem (24:1–2). Tragically, the event Ezekiel has been speaking of comes to pass. From the perspective of international politics, the siege “happened” because Zedekiah refused to pay his annual tribute to the king of Babylon in an anti-Babylonian collation with Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre, and Sidon (2Kgs 25:1–7; Jer 6). From the spiritual perspective, the siege represents God’s just judgment on their conduct (Ezek 24:14). The siege on the city demonstrates Jerusalem’s immediate vulnerability and that her end is now indisputably in sight. Ultimately, God’s word communicated through Ezekiel finds validation on this day. For these reasons, marking the date has great significance. Although Ezekiel routinely gives dates throughout the book, the specific command to “write down” or record the date of “this day . . . this very day” (2x) places a stronger-than-usual emphasis on the event itself (24:2). Accordingly, Ezekiel’s credibility as a true prophet manifests itself among the exiled community (Deut 13:1ff). Approximately five years after Ezekiel’s opening vision (Ezek 1–3), where the Lord promised they would know a prophet was among them (2:5), the evidence emerges. This day marks the beginning of the end (January 15, 588 BC; cf. 2Kgs 25:1; Jer 52:4), where the city endured a thirty-month-long siege.  

24:3–12 Jerusalem: An unsafe city. With the city’s vulnerability exposed due to the announcement of the siege, God exposes misconceptions about Jerusalem’s impregnability. Regardless of the safety they thought was theirs (11:3–11; chs. 14, 18), regardless of those who thought their goodness spared them in the exile of 597 BC (see 11:3), an irredeemable situation for Jerusalem remains (24:3–8). The imagery here of Jerusalem as a pot protecting the meat (likely its inhabitants who corroded the city with bloodshed) gives way to this surprising parable of plunder. Not even the pot itself (Jerusalem) emptied of the corrosion inside (inhabitants) can be rid of its impurities. The lot of the empty pot is such that not even fire that typically burns off heavy deposits of erosion on metals can purify it (24:11). Jerusalem was not a safe haven.

24:13–14 Jerusalem: A pregnable city. Plunder not protection awaits Jerusalem. This parable pertaining to “the lot of the pot,” together with the announcement of the siege, makes a poignant point for those with theological misconceptions about Jerusalem’s safety and prominence. The Babylonians will cleanse the city and burn away its impurity, commencing with the siege as God’s punishment. The time has come (see ch. 7) for God to unleash his fury. The certainty of Jerusalem’s end rests on the power of Yahweh’s spoken word. The certainty of Jerusalem’s destruction involves the full extent of judgement from Yahweh: “I will not hold back . . . I will not relent.” Judgment materializes because Yahweh detaches himself emotionally from his people: “I will not have pity” (e.g., 5:11). For hundreds and hundreds of years, God’s mercy triumphed over judgment (Exod 34:6). However, at some point his judgment must come because he is a God who takes sin seriously. He will by no means clear the guilty (Exod 34:7). Ezekiel 24:14 summarizes the end of the matter. 

24:15–18 Announcement #2: Death of Ezekiel’s wife. As if news of the siege was not enough of a guarantee or an apt indicator of the city’s demise, God offers another sure sign of death (24:15–27). God announces to Ezekiel that “the delight of your eyes” will soon be taken away by Yahweh’s initiative. Within a twelve-hour period, Ezekiel’s wife died. Both the designation employed for her and the timing of the event communicate important information. The designation Yahweh uses for Ezekiel’s wife suggests a strong human attachment that he possessed for her. Likewise, the suddenness of her death shows a lack of preparedness for it. Due to the similarity between the language used for her death and language in the Book of Exodus and elsewhere, she seems to have had plague-like sickness (24:16; cf. Exod 9:14; Num 14:37; “one blow”). God also announces that Ezekiel must exercise some restraint in sentiment when her death occurs. He must refrain from the typical outward expressions of grief such as loud lamentation, crying, and tears (Josh 7:6; 1Sam 4:12; 2Sam 15:30; Jer 16:7; Mic 3:7). The exiles must not recognize him as one in mourning for the death of his wife. Given the fact he ate a scroll containing lamentation (Ezek 2:8) and has demonstrated mourning gestures elsewhere in the book, it feels unnatural and unexpected. However, he may “groan quietly” or only inwardly “sigh but not aloud” (24:17). The prophet does as God commanded (24:18), but this leaves his audience puzzled and asking follow-up questions about his strange behavior once again. In the subsequent material he offers an interpretation that would surely shock his hearers. 

24:19–24 Announcement #3: Death of Jerusalem’s temple. Naturally, the people do not understand the sudden death of the prophet’s wife nor Ezekiel’s restraint of sentiment in the moment. God provides the explanation with another surprising announcement: the tragic event of Ezekiel’s life represents a “sign” that loss will also befall the people of God (24:24). At his initiative God will soon bring destruction to “my sanctuary” (24:21). He draws attention to the iconic nature of the Jerusalem temple that developed. His sanctuary had become an object of great pride (24:21, 25). The statements “delight of your eyes” (24:21, 25), “object of deep affection” (24:21, 25), “their joy”, and “glory” (24:25) express an extreme fondness and attachment, which led to a deep-seated pride. Their unhealthy affection and pride produced a false confidence. It engendered the wrong belief that the sanctuary was untouchable. What happened to Ezekiel, however, offers a sure sign concerning their faulty theological system (24:24). 

Moreover, when the temple falls, the people’s reaction should mirror Ezekiel’s (24:22). Rather than outwardly display grief when they hear the dreaded news, they should groan inwardly and amongst themselves (24:23–24). Their inward groaning should not be for the loss of Yahweh’s sanctuary, but for their hardened sin nature (24:23), something to this point they were unable to recognize. Rather than discard their turbans (24:23) as would be expected in mourning rites (Jos 7:6; 1Sam 4:12), he commands they remain on their heads. This is so because the turban was considered a festive garment related to wedding imagery. It was also used by the priests when elected for service (Ezek 44:18; see also Isa 61:10; Zech 3:5). By wearing a festive garment or a garment associated with a special religious status at a time of grief, Ezekiel’s sign manifests an element of hope as they transition to the future. Once the sanctuary and city fall, mourning the loss would serve no purpose. The city and sanctuary as they knew it were things of the past. Rather than outwardly adorn themselves with mourning garb at the news of the fall, it would be a time to think of their future, a new status for God’s people. This likely explains why outward mourning gestures would not be necessary once the city falls. This sign, however, vividly exposes their misplaced beliefs and hopes (so too Jer 7). When Nebuchadnezzar comes in 586 BC, these things will be destroyed when the temple burns down. The sign and its interpretation likely sent shockwaves through Ezekiel’s exilic audience for these reasons.

24:25–27 Announcements #4 and #5: News from fugitive and return of speech. The final section of the chapter contains two concluding announcements. First, “on the day,” “on that day,” referring to the day Jerusalem falls (24:26), a runaway from the events of 586 B.C in Jerusalem will trek around 880 miles (1,417 km) to tell Ezekiel the news in Babylon (33:21). This represents anywhere from four to six months depending on travel conditions (so too Ezra 8). The second announcement pertains to Ezekiel. “At that time,” the day Ezekiel hears that Jerusalem has fallen, Ezekiel the mourner could expect a return to normal life. He will be able to speak again (see 3:26–27). This “sign” (24:27) reflects a change in Ezekiel’s mourning role (cf. 2Sam 12) that commenced when he ate the scroll (Ezek 2:8) and was subjected to silence (3:15, 26). Time for mourning will be over when the city finally falls.

The five announcements in this chapter underscore the trustworthiness of the prophet. Ezekiel announces the surety of the sanctuary’s fall (24:15–27), which will come to pass about two years after the siege (32:12; 33:33). The fact that a real prophet has proven to be in their midst would not only build belief about the fall, but it would equally build confidence in Ezekiel’s subsequent words that speak of how God will deal with Israel’s enemies (chs. 25–32) and the future restoration of the city, land, and people visualized at the end of the book (chs. 34–48). Believing God’s true messengers was not a strong suit of God’s people. The Book of Chronicles, a look at Israel’s history from the rearview mirror, aptly summarizes Ezekiel’s experience with his hardened audience: “The Lord, the God of their fathers, sent persistently to them by his messengers, because he had compassion on his people and on his dwelling place. But they kept mocking the messengers of God, despising his words, and scoffing at his prophets until the wrath of the Lord rose against his people until there was no remedy. Therefore, he brought up against them the king of the Chaldeans . . .” (2Chron 36:15–17). 

We would do well in the church to accept the messengers that God graciously sends our way, those with the courage to challenge our iconic belief systems, those who dare to tell us the truth about God’s Word. As Ezekiel’s life demonstrates, God’s messengers may experience personal loss, a sacrificial witness for the sake of the message. Jesus, God’s ultimate messenger (John 12:45), exposed the world to God’s compassion and warned of God’s wrath to come. Yet “Even after Jesus had performed so many signs in their presence, they still would not believe” (John 12:37). He was rejected and despised, and God subjected his Son to death on a cross as a sign to the world. 

Readers expect to hear of Jerusalem’s fall immediately following the death of Ezekiel’s wife (24:15–27), but the news of the fall does not come until 33:21–22, approximately two years after her passing. Sandwiched between the sign of the fall and the report of it are a series of prophecies condemning seven surrounding nations that, at first glance, seem misplaced (chs. 25–32).³⁵ If one understands the actual news of Jerusalem’s fall to inaugurate a new era of hope (mourning to joy; cf. Ezek 24), that hope could only be realized when Israel’s enemies were destroyed. Given Israel’s vulnerable condition, it was expected that friends and neighbors would come and offer comfort. In Israel’s case, rather than share in the mourner’s grief by bringing comfort, her enemies rejoiced. The less-than-neighborly ways of Ammon, Moab, Edom, and Philistia caused Israel further grief. The way Tyre gloated over the ruination of the house of Judah and the extent of Egypt’s oppression caused Israel to suffer. Thus, when Israel’s oppressors receive punishment from God, God’s people will be comforted, and full restoration can begin. Thus, the literary placement of these prophecies has a distinct function in the book’s overall message. They serve as a preface to the restoration material that starts in chapter 33. 

25:1–17 First stop, Ammon, Moab, Edom, Philistia. The judgment sequence “because [they are evil] . . . therefore [God will judge them],” used previously for Israel (e.g., 5:7–11), repeats itself in the prophecies against these nations. This grammatical sequence, with a clear cause-and-effect pattern, exposes the guilt of each nation. The promised punishment would comfort Ezekiel’s Judean audience. Judah’s four immediate neighbors moving clockwise were Ammon on the northeast (25:1–7), Moab to the east (25:8–11), Edom to the south (25:12–14), and Philistia to the west (25:15–17). Whether it was due to conflicting religious practices, lack of help in time of need, mocking, lack of distinctiveness with Yahweh and other gods, or persistent adversaries, God held these nations accountable. Their behavior required a direct confrontation with him. 

26:1–28:26 Next stop, Tyre and Sidon. A lengthy judgment on Tyre (26:1–28:19) and a short statement concerning Sidon’s end (28:20–24) unfolds in the next three chapters. Tyre and Sidon were two wealthy and influential seafaring Phoenician cities, and the Bible often speaks of them together (Isa 23:1–4; Jer 25:22; 47:4; Joel 3:4; Zech 9:2). With respect to Tyre, the repeated phrase “I will bring you to a horrible end and you will be no more” (Ezek 26:21; 27:36; 28:19) divides the oracle into three parts. Tyre, the chief seaport of Phoenicia, rejoiced rather than comforted Jerusalem because they gloated over Jerusalem’s problems (26:2).³⁶ Therefore, God is against them (26:3). As an economic superpower, they played a key role in international trade due to their location. Tyre was an island separate from the coast, wealthy, renowned, and arrogant as a result. The Lord assures the end of Tyre’s arrogance by sending the king of Babylon as his instrument of judgment (26:7). Ezekiel poetically and appropriately describes Tyre’s end with seafaring language. The irony is that God will reduce Tyre, whose name in Hebrew means “rock,” to a bare rock good only for fishing (26:4–5, 14). He will sink Tyre “the ship” (27:25–27). He will also demolish the pride of its king (28:1–19). The prophecy ends with a brief word of judgment on Sidon and the purpose for all of these oracles (28:20–26). 

26:1–21 Tyre’s destruction announced. Three images dominate: Tyre is made a bare rock out in the open seas (26:1–14); the coastlands are personified as mourners over the city’s destruction (26:15–18); and the pit becomes Tyre’s eternal dwelling place (26:19–21). These three images communicate Tyre’s fall, lament, and burial (see also Isa 23; Jer 25:22; 47:4; Joel 3:4–5; Amos 1:9–10; Zech 9:2–4). Tyre’s burial place—the oceans depths—is appropriate for this port and trading city. It drowns at sea and plunges to the pit or grave, where she shares the fate of those long dead (Ps 143:3; Lam 3:6). The pit is a synonym for hell (also Ezek 32:18), reserved for those whom death has separated from communion with God (Isa 38:13). Nebuchadnezzar’s army would move up the Euphrates River valley into Syria in a northward direction to descend on Tyre (Jer 1:13). Nebuchadnezzar leads a military force merged from the nations he conquered (605–562 BC). His title, “king of kings,” amplifies his power over a powerful nation (29:18–19; 30:10). Indeed, Tyre will never be built up again in the same way; its heyday has come and gone, and now it is only a modest population with little influence. This event is possibly fulfilled by Alexander’s devastating siege in 332 BC. Thus, Tyre’s fall, lament, and burial is secured. 

27:1–36 A lament over Tyre the ship. This fuller lament portrays Tyre as a proud, self-exalting, spectacular merchant ship. It lauds the ship’s beauty and crew (27:1–11). The builders, the sailors, and the mercenary army all contributed in making complete the ship’s beauty (27:10–11). The vastness of the ship’s beauty mirrors the vast scope of Tyre’s shipping and trading business. It then discusses the lands with which the ship trades (27:12–25a). This section records as many as twenty-three locations, some very distant (e.g., Tarshish and Persia), and follows a roughly west-to-east pattern. The places and the list of choice products shuttled through Tyre underscore its role as an international economic superpower and display their wealth, which contributed to their pride. Finally, we learn of the ship’s wreck (27:25b–36). Because of her great prestige through trade, the boat Tyre is “filled with heavily laden” cargo (27:25). However, the ship and all its crew will sink not because of the heavy cargo but “the east wind.” From ship to shore their cries for help will be heard (27:28). The imagery of the shipwreck speaks of the disaster that Nebuchadnezzar, coming from the east (17:10; 19:12; Jon 4), will bring upon Tyre. Mourning ensues for the sunken ship (27:29–36), a development from 26:17–18. Ezekiel envisions mourners arriving for Tyre’s funeral along with their accompanying lament song. The lament song has notes of fear-based grief as funeral participants anticipate their own end (27:35; cf. 26:18). However, the “merchants among the peoples” (27:36), those vying for business alongside Tyre, gloat over the city’s death.

28:1–19 A lament over Tyre’s king. This part of Tyre’s lament concerns its arrogant king. It uses images mainly from Genesis 1–3 (creation and paradise), as well as the Mountain of God (the location of God’s dwelling), to expose the Tyrian king’s (Ittobaal III) arrogance. Accordingly, the chapter presents a figurative portrayal of the king of Tyre. The first section of the prophecy contains the accusation and sentencing of Tyre (28:1–10). It begins with a clear accusation pertaining to the pride of the king (28:1–5). “I am a god” exposes the king’s prideful heart and frames this literary section (28:2, 5). The elevation of his pride is comparable to deity-like claims about himself, noted by the repetition of the term “god” four times in 28:2. The sentencing commences with tongue-in-cheek statements that acknowledge the king’s wisdom, natural leadership abilities, and their benefit to Tyre (28:4–5): “You are, indeed, wiser than Daniel” (see 14:14). The sentencing makes clear her end (28:6–10). God will bring “foreigners upon you . . . the most ruthless of nations” (28:7). The Babylonians, whom God employs as his agents of destruction (cf. 30:11; 31:12; 32:12), will kill the king (cf. 26:19–21). His death will be like that of the “uncircumcised,” those not part of God’s covenantal people and used here in the sense of barbarian.

The second part of the prophecy offers a final word to the Tyrian king and shows Ezekiel’s lament for him (28:11–19; see also 27:2; 19:1). The king had the mark of authority and authenticity, “signet of perfection” (see Jer 22:24; Hag 2:23). He was in Eden and, thus, a created Adam-like figure placed in God’s Eden sanctuary. The king of Tyre owes his entire existence to God as creator and sovereign over all (Ezek 28:13). God’s ordained purpose for the king is likened to cherubim guarding the way to the divine presence in the garden (Gen 3:24) and God’s dwelling on the holy mount of God (Exod 19). God’s purpose for his creation was to serve the creator. The king of Tyre failed as Adam did. The king was “blameless,” which suggests what his character was before wealth and arrogance marked him (Ezek 28:15), perhaps an allusion to the pre-fall conditions of Genesis 2–3. That the king “sinned” (28:16) is a statement that describes his fall owing to dishonest trade leading to pride and arrogance. The king of Tyre is portrayed as a fallen Adam-like figure. The consequence of his sin is being driven away to experience death: “I cast you to the ground” (28:17). As with the expulsion of Adam in the garden (cf. Gen 3:1–19), pride came before the king of Tyre’s fall. The exaltation of the king to a god-like figure (a deified king) was common in the ancient Near East. But the fact that he dies provides proof otherwise; hence, the needed lament. 

Although the passage describes the pride and fall of the king of Tyre, the imagery of creation causes some to understand these verses as a reference to either Satan’s pride, fall, and curse (Gen 3:1–15; cf. Isa 14:12–15) or to Adam’s fall. Tyre is compared to a second Adam, a created being (Ezek 28:13, 15), and also a cherub (28:14) dwelling in the garden and mountain of God (28:13–14). A proud heart produced its downfall (28:17). Ezekiel adapts the Genesis passage for use in this lament because it fits the general characteristic of the lament genre, which magnifies the life of the deceased and then describes the magnitude of the loss.

Although the focus remains on the king of Tyre, the shift in the second part of the prophecy (28:11–19) allows for a metaphorical entity beyond the human king. For this reason, some have supposed this description concerns more information on the fall of Satan than that offered by Isaiah (Isa 14:12–20) if the latter speaks of Satan’s fall and not the king of Babylon’s fall (cf. Jude 6; 2Pet 2:4 on angels falling). The deified king and his fall from greatness recalls a primeval time of great ones falling from the mountain of the Lord, and Satan would be included. An indirect allusion from Daniel based on designations of “ruler” and “king” or “prince” does show a connection with spiritual powers (Dan 10:13–20). However, the primary image for Satan in the language of prophecy is not a prince or king but a dragon and serpent (Isa 27:1; 51:9ff; Job 1:6). Moreover, far more specificity regarding Satan’s fall comes from Luke 10:18 and especially from Revelation 12:7–9, 13. The latter text is where one finds the best description of the fall of Satan, an event that takes place at the cross. 

Regardless of one’s interpretation, the point is how this figurative portrayal of the human king underlines staunch opposition and arrogance to God. His claims to divinity, divine authority, and divine intelligence insult the Lord. God judges the human king. The judgment on Tyre and its king represents more than just God’s wrath on Tyre for their treatment of Jerusalem when it fell. The figurative and exaggerated language about Tyre’s wealth and pride suggests the possibility of something more. Moreover, Tyre’s judgment is lengthy, second only to the subsequent oracle on Egypt (chs. 29–32). This lengthy judgment represents the culmination of God’s judgment on the Canaanites. The coastal Canaanite city of Tyre personified Canaan’s pride and arrogance, a negative influence on God’s people. Indeed, the fall of this economic superpower sent shock waves to observers due to its dreadful end and the promise “it shall be no more forever” (28:19).

28:20–26 Purposes of the oracles against nations: A down payment of justice. God will also judge Sidon, another important Phoenician city along with Tyre. It does not specify why God is against Sidon other than calling Sidon one of Israel’s “malicious neighbors” (28:24). It does, however, specify what happens when God confronts Sidon and all of Israel’s neighbors: the act displays God’s glory and holiness (28:22, 23); God gets name recognition (28:22–24); and Israel receives comfort (28:24; Num 33:55; Josh 23:13). He indicates how hurt and contempt will be removed from Israel after Yahweh deals with their neighbors (28:24). Through this God manifests a down payment of his justice. Accordingly, this verse summarizes and concludes the oracles against these six nations (28:25–28).³⁷ Only after Israel receives comfort can the restoration process begin. Therefore, the statement about restoration (28:25–26), placed unexpectedly after the oracles against these six nations, points forward to this theme in chapters 33–48, but especially chapters 38–39. God vows to return his people to their land, and they will live in safety forever because, in a final act of justice, he destroys Gog. The restoration discussed there includes a demonstration of God’s holiness and name recognition among the nations. Once God destroys Israel’s enemies, God’s covenantal promises can advance. The stated purposes of the oracles against the nations anticipates what Ezekiel speaks of later in the book.

29:1–32:32 Last stop, Egypt. These prophesies constitute the largest of the oracles against the nations in the book. The date formula (ranging from 587 to 570 BC) separates the oracles into seven literary units (with exception of 30:1, which has no date). The first of the seven begins with Pharaoh’s fall (ch. 29), and the seventh concludes with his burial in the pit, the final resting place reserved for God’s enemies (ch. 32). During some of these years, the Egyptian king encouraged Zedekiah to rebel against Nebuchadnezzar (see 17:15; Jer 37:5–8; Jer 42–43). Egypt was Israel’s early oppressor and Babylon’s continual enemy. As a military superpower they would flex their muscles to control Canaan, as did the Babylonians. Israel was landlocked between these two powers fighting for international control on their soil, which is why Israel repeatedly appealed to Egypt for either military or economic help against the Babylonians, an act which displeased God (e.g., Deut 17:16; 2Kgs 10:28; Isa 30:1–3; Ezek 17; 19). Egypt’s military power also explains its deep-seated national pride. The entire collection of oracles against the nations (chs. 25–32) climaxes with the death, mourning, and burial of Egypt, Israel’s archenemy (32:31–32). 

The first oracle features Egypt as a doomed monster (29:1–16). God is against Egypt and its king (Hophra, 589–570 BC). As with Tyre’s king (28:1–10), God confronts Egypt’s elevated pride. The metaphor pictures Pharaoh as a large fish, “great dragon,” or sea animal, possibly a crocodile (cf. 32:2), dwelling in the Nile delta and its canals (Isa 7:18; 19:6; 37:25). His arrogant boast, “my Nile is my own; I made it for myself,” gets to the heart of the matter (29:3, 9). Without the Nile River, Egypt would not have been a rich, fertile land. God is against him (29:3, 10). God will go “fishing” in the Nile and catch a big one. Pharaoh will be food for non-sea creatures. The rationale for the fishing trip is the king’s arrogant boasting as creator and owner of the Nile (29:3, 9). Thus, destruction awaits Egypt from Migdol to Syene (29:10), a geographical totality of the land’s desolation (from north to south; see also 30:6), similar to “from Dan to Beersheba” to describe all Israel (1Sam 3:30). The duration of Egypt’s desolation and exile will be forty years (29:11–12), reminiscent of the wilderness warnings and symbolizing a long period of hardship to counter rebellion (cf. 4:6). But God will return the Egyptians to the land of Pathros (29:13) or Upper Egypt (Southern Egypt; 30:14; Isa 11:1), where it will be a weak nation unable to rule again, an act of humiliation more than an act of mercy. This return occurred under Cyrus in 539 BC. The purposes for restoring Egypt include humiliating Egypt, warning others, and recognizing God’s sovereign hand over the nations (29:14–16). 

The second prophesy against Egypt (29:17–21), which commences in the twenty-seventh year of exile, spring 571 BC, is the latest dated oracle in the book. It shows Egypt as a payment to Nebuchadnezzar. When the king of Babylon besieged Tyre for thirteen years (586–571 BC), he gained little plunder because the siege was so long (29:18, cf. 26:12). However, God would make up for and “pay” the Babylonian army at Egypt’s expense. Nebuchadnezzar conquered Egypt in 568 BC (Jer 43–44). The third prophesy against Egypt (30:1–19) speaks of the day of the Lord for Egypt and her allies. Through the Day of the Lord imagery, a day when God breaks through to deal with his enemies, they will feel shockwaves in the land when the Babylonians confront this military superpower. Even allies or “supporters” of Egypt will fall, which reflects the effects of Egyptian military power. No one in association with her is safe from the sword and fire, not even those far from Egypt. God’s far-reaching judgment mirrors Egypt’s far-reaching military power. They are at the mercy of Babylonia, the most ruthless of nations (cf. Hab 1:6). God emphasizes his initiative in Egypt’s fall by repeatedly saying, “I will” (Ezek 29:13, 14, 15, 16, 19). The list of geographical locations unpacks the scope of the devastation and illustrates the meaning of the Day of the Lord for Egypt. Devastation will come from Egypt’s largest city (Memphis) to its strategically located fortress cities (Pelusium and Tapanhes), and God will get the glory he deserves (29:13–19).

The fourth prophecy against Egypt (30:20–26) addresses the nation through the Pharaoh. It speaks of Pharaoh’s arms being broken (dating to spring 587 BC). The arm symbolizes power. Pharaoh Hophra offered help to Judah when Nebuchadnezzar was sieging Jerusalem (Jer 37:5–11), but he gave only temporary relief (588 BC) to Judah’s siege (Jer 37:17; 38:2). Babylonian resistance weakened Egypt. That was the beginning of the end for Egypt, the first break. By means of the sword placed in the hand of the Babylonian king, God will transfer power from Egypt to Babylon (30:24; cf. ch. 21). God would break Pharaoh’s “good arm” in 586 BC (cf. 29:12). Egypt too would experience exile and acquire knowledge of God’s character as a result (30:26). The fifth prophecy against Egypt (31:1–18), dated to early summer 587 BC, addresses Pharaoh as a fallen tree. Rhetorical questions to Pharaoh frame the passage (30:2b, 18). An allegory provides the answer: Assyria was once a great cedar in Lebanon (31:3, 10, 17), but it was cut down because it was proud (31:10–11). It will be buried and mourned in Sheol, the realm of the dead (31:17). (For trees symbolizing nations, see chs. 17; 19; Dan 4.) The prophecy compares Egypt to Assyria, a beautiful cedar, through another allegory (see ch. 17). The passage is framed by a repeated rhetorical question, “Whom are you like in your greatness?” and offers a surprising answer. As the cedar was well-known for its glory and majesty in the forest of Lebanon (Isa 35:2), so too Assyria’s glory and majesty were well-known among the nations. But Assyria was proud, forgetting that she owed God for her creation and beauty (31:8–9; cf. Isa 10:15–19). Assyria’s pride (Ezek 31:10) caused God to hand the “cedar” over to the Babylonians, “the most ruthless of foreign nations,” to have it cut down (the defeat of Assyria by Babylon in 610–605 BC). The cedar’s ultimate place after falling was “Sheol,” the OT likeness of hell (31:14, 15, 16, 17), a destiny of death. As with Assyria, so too with Egypt. This resulted in “all the trees of Eden” finding comfort because the mightiest of trees had joined them (those who thought they were pristine) in the realm of the dead. The prophecy closes with a repeated rhetorical question that frames the passage (31:18, 2). The surprising answer is that Egypt’s “splendor and majesty” (her arrogant pride) is comparable not only to Assyria but to any of Eden’s trees, and so is her fate. She will keep company with the “uncircumcised,” those outside God’s community.

The sixth prophecy against Egypt (32:1–16) offers a lament over Pharaoh, dating to spring 585 BC. This highlights Ezekiel’s mourning role once again with the command to write a lament for Pharaoh, king of Egypt (32:2; cf. 28:11). The sea monster metaphor that describes Pharaoh and his end in 29:1–6 is fuller here (32:1–10). God will “catch” the sea monster with a net and bring it to its death on land. Pharaoh’s death will cause national mourning, and the sword of Babylon will devastate Egypt (32:11–16). The seventh and last prophecy against Egypt (32:17–32), dating to spring 586/5 BC, shows Egypt’s descent to the realm of the dead (i.e., its death). Ezekiel envisions nations who rejected God, slain armies, laid to rest in the pit. The list begins with Assyria (32:22; cf. 31:16) and ends with Egypt (32:31). “Out of the midst of Sheol” a welcoming committee awaits Egypt and her allies, assuring their arrival at the right place (32:26). Egypt shares its destiny with others, evidenced by graves all around. The names of the deceased, previously deceased family members, cause of death (“killed by sword”), and specific burial places within the pit are mentioned (32:22–30). Finally, the entire collection of oracles against the nations (chs. 25–32) climaxes with the death, mourning, and burial of Egypt, Israel’s archenemy (32:31–32).

God has no time for mocking, hatred, revenge, and malicious joy at the expense of the comfort and support of his own people. God does not tolerate pride. Ezekiel 28:24–26 sums it up and specifies that God will confront all of Israel’s malicious neighbors. When he does, it displays his glory and holiness (28:22, 23); he gets name recognition (28:22–24); and he comforts Israel (28:24; Num 33:55; Josh 23:13). This represents an act of his justice. As he did with Pharaoh in the past he does with Israel’s current enemies (28:25–32) and future enemies (28:38–39). He will do the same in the future. From a biblical-theological point of view, the oracles are a reminder that a day is coming when God will confront those who oppose him and his people. The nations will have a confrontation with God (Phil 2:10–11; Rom 14:10–11). Human self-promotion leads to demotion. Revelation 17–18 and the description of Babylon also references the fall of Tyre. God opposes the proud but gives grace to the humble (1Pet 5:5).

God renews Ezekiel’s watchman role in this chapter. He does so for several reasons. After faithfully warning God’s people about Jerusalem’s final demise (chs. 4–24), and after informing them about the demise of opposing nations (chs. 25–32), a drastic transition from judgment to restoration occurs in the theme of Ezekiel’s prophecies. Because the messages of both death and life lie within the purview of a watchman (33:1–9; cf. 3:16–19), chapter 33 stands as a preface to the restoration material (34:1–48:35). More immediately, because Jerusalem’s fall now lies in the near rather than distant future, the gracious reappointment of a watchman offers a final call to undergo a lifestyle change. Unfortunately, a valid need still exists for a watchman because God’s people continue to hold fast to invalid viewpoints about their lives, God’s character, and especially Ezekiel’s role in the community. As a result of these faulty notions, their lives have still not been transformed. They have not allowed the word of God through Ezekiel to penetrate their hearts and lives. Sadly, insincerity marks his audience; thus, they remain hearers of his word but not doers (33:30–33; cf. Jas 1:22). The chapter highlights their outlook, which God seeks to correct.

33:1–9 A matter of life and death: Valid warning restated. At his initial call, the Lord informed Ezekiel, “I made you a watchman” (3:17; see discussion on 3:16–19). The use of this military metaphor represented the warning Ezekiel was to issue about life and death as it relates to godly conduct (33:12–16). At that time God likened his prophetic call and ministry to that of a watchman. But now, given the nearness of the city’s end (33:21–22), Ezekiel’s audience needs to know that God assigned him this “watchman” role for their sake (33:2, 7). Knowledge of his watchman role should bring encouragement to his audience, for even at the final hour God wishes to warn his people about life-and-death matters. What strikes the reader is that the viewpoint of the people exemplified in the statements below (33:10, 17, 20, 31) hasn’t changed from Ezekiel’s initial call. He has been talking of life and death issues (right vs. wrong living) and the city’s demise for twelve years at this point (33:21). Yet they ask, “How then can we live?” (33:10).

33:10–20 How then can we live? The way of the Lord is not just: Invalid viewpoints revisited. The first statement that reflects the thinking of the exiles comes in 33:10–11. Based on the quote “Our offenses and sins weigh us down, and we are wasting away because of them,” it appears that, for the first time, the exiles might be taking ownership of their problem instead of blaming their fathers (18:2) or God (18:19, 25). They feel weighted down by sin. This sentiment leads naturally to the question, “How then can we live?” (33:10). Although it seems sincere to pose this question, they technically should have known the answer based on a previous conversation with Ezekiel (see ch. 18). Regardless, God obliges. His viewpoint is prefaced with a legally binding statement, a sworn declaration of his own character. “As I live, declares the Lord God” (33:11; see 5:11) communicates something positive. They can live because God’s character is such that “I take no pleasure in the death of the wicked (33:11). They can live if they “Turn back! Turn back from your evil ways!” (33:11). “Turning” implies a lifestyle change that begins with the heart. It does not cancel out consequences for sin but does show a remorse for sin and a desire to change. They must discard that which weighs them down, “their ways,” “your evil ways,” and follow God’s lifegiving ways. The Lord’s response reveals two important things: first, they clearly have not had a change of heart; second, a change of heart remains a possibility because God delights in life not death (33:11; see 14:6; 18:23, 30). His character and desire for them match. They can live. Regardless of the divine desire, their unshakeable viewpoint about Yahweh surfaces: “The way of the Lord is not just” (33:17, 20). Since they do not have the ability to adjust their ways, they criticize God’s way of dealing with them. The depth of their unbelief and skepticism blinds them to the truth of God’s character. Not even a sworn statement by the living God himself could overcome their skepticism (33:11, 12–16). This shows that the stark contrast between their ideas of justice with God’s derive from a wrong premise (see 18:25). Thus, this update, just prior to news of the city’s fall, about Ezekiel’s audience disappoints. It reveals their insincerity. Even after twelve years of ministering in their midst, their misguided viewpoints remain intact. 

33:21–22 Attention! Attention! The building collapsed: Valid proof of a prophet among you. Subsequent to this update about Ezekiel’s audience, Jerusalem’s fall is reported and his speech returns (33:21–22). In just two verses we learn of the tragedy that the prophet promised for years. After twelve years of hearing Ezekiel’s messages that a final blow awaits the city, the report comes. On January 8, 585 BC, five months after the temple was burned, Ezekiel got the tragic word from a fugitive that the city had fallen (24:25–27). Ezekiel makes it clear, however, that before the news reached him, the Lord opened his mouth. Yahweh breaks Ezekiel’s “mourning silence,” a silence that continued for approximately seven years (cf. 2:9–3:3; 3:15). He credits this with “the hand of the Lord,” the overshadowing power of God that accompanied his ministry from day one and at various points throughout his ministry (33:22; cf. 1:3; 3:22; 8:1; 37:1; 40:1). With this supernatural event both Ezekiel and his still-skeptical audience would have known to expect the dreaded news of the city’s fall based on the death of Ezekiel’s wife two years prior (24:14ff). Yahweh did what he said he would do. He released Ezekiel from the divine imposition of speechlessness (see 3:26–27) by the time the fugitive arrived (several months later due to travel from Judah to Babylon) with the news. This valid news further validates the prophet (2:5; 24:2, 24; 33:33).³⁸

33:23–29 Entitlement mentality: Another invalid viewpoint revisited. After the announcement of the city’s fall, another viewpoint comes to light from those still in Jerusalem. The statement generated from the inhabitants of Jerusalem “Abraham was only one man, yet he got possessions of the land . . . but we are many; the land is surely given us to possess” (33:24) reveals a strong sense of entitlement. Those living in Jerusalem, those left in the land after the events of the 586 BC exile (2Kgs 25:12), felt entitled to their promised inheritance. The exiles wonder about this, too. God’s response shows how far off they were with their thinking. By “name dropping” they are expressing an arrogant entitlement to the land because of their ties to Father Abraham (Gen 12:1–3; chs. 15; 17). It seems very deliberate that Ezekiel mentions this viewpoint when he does, after the news of the city’s fall. Not even the realities in front of them could penetrate their entrenched entitlement mentality. Not even further confrontation concerning their continuation of poor ethics gave them pause (Ezek 33:25–26). As before, God’s viewpoint surfaces with a sworn statement of his own character but as a preface to something negative: “As surely as I live . . . I will make the land a desolate waste, and her proud strength will come to an end” (33:11, 28; see 5:11). In this he revisits their thinking. He offers the divine perspective and a needed corrective about the promises of land to Abraham (Gen 12:1–3; 15:1–21). 

33:30–33 Performer, not prophet: Ezekiel the entertainer. The final viewpoint exposed in this section underscores the perception Ezekiel’s audience had toward him as God’s messenger (33:30). Ezekiel was the talk of the town, his name was everywhere, perhaps celebrity-like, even a spiritual heavyweight (33:30). They don’t tire of going to hear him; they regularly and routinely attend his talks and even invite others. Such eagerness stems from the acknowledgement that what they hear derives from the divine. Or does it? At first this all sounds quite admirable and positive until one learns from God’s perspective why they show up. They are misconstruing Ezekiel for an entertainer. Because lust resides in their mouths, they go back to him to feed their craving.³⁹ They listen to his words of judgment and treat it as entertainment. They have perversely deemed him as a singer of sensual songs (33:31; cf. 23:11).⁴⁰ Their motivations are all wrong. They have reduced God’s word delivered through the prophet to erotic entertainment (33:32). Their mouths and hearts reflect the craving (33:31). All this represents an impediment to change. As a result, “they . . . sit before you to hear your words, but they do not put them into practice” (33:31, 32). They are hearers of God’s Word but not doers. Rather than do the hard work and apply God’s Word to their lives, they are like classroom auditors. They have not yet understood that “a prophet has been among them,” but God assures that one day they would (33:33; cf. 2:5).

These prevalent and persistent viewpoints of God’s people provide a needed update and further commentary on their heart posture. The views expressed here represent a vivid portrait of what insincerity looks like. Rather than heed the word of the watchman, they clenched tightly to pet doctrines and faulty viewpoints. Sadly, their insincere approach to hearing the word of the Lord coupled with a religious entitlement caused them to pervert Ezekiel’s message. Their ears were tickled by his “entertainment,” but their lives remained untouched by God’s Word. 

Ezekiel looks extremely successful as a minister. He draws large crowds, is known by name within the community, has an appreciation for visuals and aesthetics, and keeps the attention of his audience as he delivers God’s message. Overall, his attractional model of ministry suggests success and suitability for front-page coverage on a Christian magazine. However, the size of a crowd and one’s appreciation for aesthetics does not equate to an audience’s sincerity. In fact, large crowds and extravagant visuals may detract from the real problem, the hardness of the human heart that lacks the ability to hear God’s Word. Many today remain hearers of his Word and not doers (Jas 1:22–25). The preference for entertainment rather than a confrontation with God’s Word confirms that Paul’s charge to Timothy in the first century to “preach the word in season and out” (2Tim 4:2) has continuing relevance today. “People will not put up with sound doctrine. Instead, to suit their own desires, they will gather around them a great number of teachers to say what their itching ears want to hear” (2Tim 4:3). Faithful preachers and teachers will challenge wrong views about God’s character and warn about a godless lifestyle. They will discern their audience. Are people showing up to have an honest confrontation from God’s Word about their lifestyle and views? An insincere audience or attendee tends to evaluate the service rather than soul search. The concern for faithfulness rather than success should drive the minister of God. We would do well to believe that “prophets” are still among us, challenging us not only to be hearers but also doers of God’s Word.

The answer to the burning question posed prior, “How then can we live?” (33:10), receives an answer more fully in this chapter. Life comes out of death because of the divine desire to provide new, caring, and compassionate leadership. This represents the first step in Israel’s restoration. Yahweh initiates a rescue mission and revitalizes the religious life of his people. Chapter 34 shows Yahweh’s heart of compassion through the shepherd and sheep metaphor, an apt image describing how and why they will return from exile. Due to the harm of selfish, human shepherds and their failure to tend the flock, God the Good Shepherd will snatch his flock away from such danger (34:1–10). Israel’s leadership failure gives way to the help and success of Israel’s true Shepherd, God, who will rescue and lovingly tend to the needs of the sheep (34:11–16). God acts to correct the poor leadership problem that contributed to the sheep being sent into exile. He acts to set the record straight about his leadership with his own people. The goal of the mission will entail judging unruly sheep (34:17–24) and accomplishing the salvation of God’s flock (34:22) through the provision of one shepherd, a David-like human figure, a righteous ruler validated by God (34:20–24). The leader highlighted points to a descendant of David who will shepherd, namely, Jesus, the son of David. As a result, new living conditions articulated in the “Covenant of Peace” emerge for God’s flock (34:25–31). Through the Covenant of Peace, another designation for the New Covenant, the shepherd-king will administer peace and equity. His people would experience his caring and compassionate character and have a restored identity in him: “they shall know that . . . they are my people . . . and I am your God” (34:30–31).

34:1–10 A rescue mission needed: The harm of selfish shepherds. The shepherds refer to Israel’s leadership, especially the kings and their officials (see 2Sam 7:7; Jer 25:18–19), but also the prophets and priests (see Isa 56:11; Jer 23:9–11). To call a king a shepherd was common throughout the ancient Near East. David’s rise from shepherd to shepherd-king is noted in the Psalms (Ps 78:70–71). Ezekiel had earlier singled out the princes, priests, and prophets for special rebuke (22:23–29). Now he gives detailed attention to the problem and then offers a solution (34:11–31). Like his predecessor Jeremiah, Ezekiel offers a writhing condemnation to the shepherds (cf. Jer 23:1–4) for their absent, neglectful, and abusive ways. Israel’s leaders benefited from their titles but did not do their job of caring for the flock (Ezek 34:3). They had no concern for the good of the people (34:4; cf. Jer 50:6; Zech 11:15–17; Matt 18:12–14; Luke 15:4; 19:10). As a result, God says “my sheep” (Ezek 34:6) were scattered and wandered all about (34:5–6). The tenderness of the relationship expresses itself with the use of the possessive. The language of “scatter” is often used by Ezekiel to describe Israel’s exile and dispersion (11:16–17; 12:15; 20:23, 34, 41; 22:15; 28:25). Their disaffection contrasts God’s deep affection witnessed in the repeated phrase “my flock” used five times in these ten verses (34:8 [3x],10 [2x], and six more times in the chapter: 34:11, 12, 15, 17, 19, 22). Sheep require compassion, care, and affection, and God is against the shepherds because of their failure to provide these (34:2, 10). He will remove harmful and selfish shepherds (34:10), which will lead the true shepherd of Israel to initiate a full-scale rescue mission of compassion. 

34:11–16 The Lord initiates the rescue mission: The help of a true and just shepherd. As a result of lousy leadership (absent, neglectful, and abusive) and its negative effects on the flock (scattered), God must take matters into his own hands. The Lord’s tender and compassionate demeanor towards his lost flock entails a search-and-rescue mission he conducts himself: “I, myself, will search for my sheep,” and “I, myself, will tend my sheep” (34:11, 15). These phrases in Hebrew emphasize Yahweh’s action by fronting the pronoun before the verb: “I, I will search” and “I, I will tend.” Yahweh alone provides the needed assistance. Moreover, he underscores the divine assistance by insisting twelve times, “I will” (search for sheep, look after, rescue, bring out, bring into, pasture, tend, search for lost, bind, destroy sleek, shepherd with justice). He takes the initiative in providing care, compassion, and justice in this far-reaching rescue mission (34:12). Babylonia was not the only place the Israelites had gone in exile (Jer 43:1–17). The sum of what he does for the flock ensures justice (Ezek 34:16). God views the return from exile in 539 BC as a rescue mission of justice on account of the help of the true and just shepherd.

34:17–24 The goals of the Lord’s rescue mission: Justice and salvation. Not only does God’s rescue mission represent an act of justice, but he also carries out justice further by judging between sheep and saving the flock by means of “one shepherd” (34:23). In terms of justice, he administers it among different kinds of sheep, the “rams and male goats,” who represent people of influence and power that were oppressing poorer Israelites (34:17). He holds to account those who had fattened themselves by oppressing other “lean sheep” (34:20). Justice within the covenantal community was not valued. The poor behavior of some in the flock reveals the influence of deficient leadership (34:12–21). Accordingly, Yahweh’s justice manifests itself by providing new leadership (34:22–24). This new leadership will “save” the flock (34:22). 

Based on their familiarity with good leadership of the past, he speaks of “one shepherd” (34:23) who will accomplish justice and salvation. The shepherd-servant David will have success. This “one” shepherd, in contrast to the forty-plus “shepherds” that the nation experienced as a whole, would give a cohesion like no other. The mention of “my servant David” (34:23, 24) would immediately raise an eyebrow. Does this suggest David’s resurrection in the future? Given his renown and previous success shepherding God’s people, the mention of David makes sense. It provides encouragement that God has someone in mind to serve, and his service would be David-like (2Sam 8:15). God would raise up a ruler like David and from his line who would rule well (Jer 23:5; cf. 2Sam 7). At Israel’s return from exile no such leadership existed; the Book of Ezra makes this clear. No Davidic king returns, but they are descendants of David (Ezra 2; Neh 7; Hag 2; Isa 11:1). Therefore, the servant referred to here points beyond the exile. This Davidic shepherd-leader reminds of the Messiah, the “good shepherd” (John 10:11–18). The goal of the Lord’s rescue mission that started with the return from exile also entails a time in the future of unbroken fellowship between God and his people and his consistent care of them through such leadership. Yahweh would be their God—“I, the Lord, will be their God” (Ezek 34:24)—and the earthly king—“my servant” (34:23, 24) or “prince” (cf. 37:25; 44:3; 45:7, 16–17, 22; 46:2–18; 48:21–22)—the shepherd who unites. This servant-prince would offer solid provision and nourishment, as he “shall feed them” (34:23), unlike previous shepherds. The nature of his leadership also entails ruling with justice (see 37:24–28; Jer 23:5–6). Israel’s hope for justice and salvation lies in the Lord’s personal involvement in caring for the flock. The use of the statement “I, the Lord, will be their God” (34:24) represents a reaffirmation of God’s commitment to his people first articulated when he rescued Israel from Egyptian bondage (Exod 6:7). This is a needed reaffirmation now that he declares a rescue from the wicked shepherds. 

34:25–31 Results of the Lord’s rescue mission: New conditions for God’s flock. Under new leadership, new living conditions prevail, as detailed in the “covenant of peace” (34:25; cf. 37:26). Safety and security will mark the new conditions (34:25). Fruitfulness also occurs as a hallmark. This is beautifully symbolized in the life-giving effects of rain. Showers in season refers to autumn rains (34:26) and spring rains, which come at the beginning and end of the rainy season, respectively (cf. Jer 5:24). These showers of blessing refer to the power of a life of fruitfulness promised to God’s people through Abraham (Gen 12:1–3). The new living conditions also entail freedom from the slavery of foreign oppressors (Ezek 34:27). The imagery is vivid. God breaks the “bars of their yoke.” This refers to the wooden pegs inserted down through holes in the yoke and tied below the animal’s neck with cords (Isa 58:6) to form a collar (cf. Ezek 30:18; Lev 26:13; Jer 27:2; 28:10–13). He takes his people out of slavery once again, rescues them for relationship, takes away the fears and shame of “exile,” and provides for them. Ezekiel’s covenant of peace,⁴¹ also the “new covenant” spoken of by Jeremiah (Jer 31:31–34), looks to a reality in the future that awaits final fulfillment, the peace initiated by Christ (Phil 4:7). The “peace” (Hebrew shalom) envisioned here is that of a restored relationship with God and the secure enjoyment of a life made full and rich through his blessings. None of the threats to life experienced under God’s judgments will mar this “peace” (compare 34:25–29 with 5:16–17 and note). This represents an echo of the promised eschatological blessings found in Leviticus 26:6 but a different way to communicate that reality. The true goal and result of the living conditions articulated in the covenant of peace pertains to renewed awareness of the divine presence: “They shall know that I, the Lord their God, am with them (34:30). It will produce a renewed awareness of their identity (34:30–31) and a renewed awareness of his tender care and compassion for them (34:31).

The first step in Israel’s restoration (return from exile) entails securing solid leadership. Out of his deep compassion and care, Yahweh provides new leadership that will secure justice and salvation. God rescues his own flock from themselves, a purging process whereby some are rescued, yet others are judged. He sets the record straight about his character and direct involvement with his people. The first step in our restoration requires righteous leadership. Our restoration gets underway because God initiates a rescue mission with Jesus’s leadership. The leader Ezekiel highlights points to Jesus, the son of David, who through the New Covenant administers peace and equity as our faithful shepherd-king. Jesus announced he was the “good shepherd,” a statement asserting that he was the true shepherd-king/prince of Israel and different from others. His mission was two-fold: to seek and save lost sheep (John 10:11–18; Matt 10:6; Luke 15:3–7) and to make a separation and deal justly with the sheep and the goats (Matt 25:31–46).⁴² Moreover, when Jesus saw the needs of the crowd, he had compassion on them and likened them to sheep without a shepherd (Mark 6:34). By extension elders and leaders in the church are called to “shepherd the flock” with care, as examples to the flock, and in anticipation of the appearance and acknowledgment of the “chief Shepherd” (1Pet 5:1–4). However, under-shepherds fail at times. The harm caused by selfish, human shepherds remains a threat to God’s people. Church leaders hurt the sheep through absent, neglectful, and abusive leadership styles. The sheep hurt one another with painful acts of injustice. People leave church and wander about aimlessly looking for needed spiritual nourishment. Although human shepherds fail, God sets the record straight about his character. The leadership offered by the good and chief shepherd promises safety, security, justice, blessings, freedom, and, above all, tender care and compassion.

After securing the leadership of a righteous shepherd (ch. 34), the next step in Israel’s restoration concerns Yahweh’s efforts to reclaim the Promised Land. God owned the land, and it was his royal estate (Lev 25:23; Exod 9:29; 19:5; Deut 10:14). The Israelites were Yahweh’s tenants, not landowners. He graciously gave the land as an inheritance, a sign of his covenantal faithfulness to them. Through the yearly tithe, they “paid” him for use of the land (Lev 27:30–33). However, Israel temporarily lost their inheritance, and the land lease ended due to sin. The loss of the land inheritance for Israel became the arrogant boast of the Edomites, those living in Mount Seir, a region known for its impenetrable rock fortresses (Jer 49:16; Obad 1:1–4).⁴³ Such gloating and bitterness stemmed from their own loss of inheritance, Jacob’s deception with Esau (Gen 27:1–40). In addition, Edom’s resentment and anger towards Israel caused them to assist with attacks on Israel by the Babylonians (Ezek 35:5, 10). 

Yahweh’s efforts to reclaim the Promised Land begin with notification that he is against Edom. He promises the annihilation of Mount Seir (35:1–15). Their end clearly guarantees no inheritance rights, but it also reinforces the true heir of the estate. Yahweh’s efforts to reclaim ownership of the land also entail restoration of the “Mountains of Israel” (36:1–15; cf. 6:1–14). Through the parallel designations “Mount Seir” and “Mountains of Israel,” God addresses the twin brothers (Esau and Jacob/Israel). Although similarly addressed, this prophecy provides a stark contrast. Mount Seir receives destruction (35:15), but the Mountains of Israel receive restoration. Restoration involves a return to the land, with fruitfulness, multiplication, and prosperity within. God will establish justice, and the rightful heirs to his promises will inherit the land (36:1–15).

35:1–9 Edom’s enmity, part 1: Harboring hostilities. This prophecy represents an expansion of what Ezekiel said previously about Edom (25:12–14).⁴⁴ The first part of the prophecy shows God’s staunch opposition towards Edom with familiar Ezekielian language: “set your face against Mount Seir” (35:1–5). He then makes the first of two vows (35:6, 11). He promises to end the “perpetual enmity” Edom has towards Israel (35:5). The ancestral hostility started with Jacob’s treatment of Esau (Gen 27) and continued well into their history (Num 20:14–21; 2Sam 8:13–14; 1Kgs 9:26–28). The hatred and anger Edom had towards Israel manifested itself as murder (Ezek 35:5). They delivered the Israelites over to the sword. The Edomites sat in waiting to kill Israelites fleeing the Babylonian siege on Jerusalem (Obad 10; 14; ca. 588–586 BC). God’s justice causes him to “retaliate” through bloodshed (Ezek 35:6; see Gen 9:6) and the guarantee of Edom’s permanent desolation.

35:10–15 Edom’s enmity part 2: Resentment about the land and its allotment. In this part of the prophecy against Edom, God makes a second vow (35:11). He promises to deal with Edom’s jealousy over the land. They tried to achieve territorial expansion (35:10; 36:2–5) over Judah and Israel, designated “two nations and countries,” because they thought the land belonged to them. Since Jacob’s inheritance came to him through deception (Gen 27:1–40), their anger, jealousy, and hatred caused them to rejoice at the loss of “the inheritance of Israel” (Ezek 35:15). The more serious matter, however, pertains to their assumption that the Lord departed from the land (cf. 11:15; 33:24). God counters. His presence was there; thus, he maintained ownership of the land (35:10; Gen 12:1–3). God “heard” Edom’s boastful and gloating heart (35:12, 13) towards Israel and would have none of it. God will deal with this resentment and hostility through Edom’s demise (35:3, 7, 9, 14, 15). 

36:1–7 Justice in the mountains of Israel. Now that the Lord has addressed Mount Seir and affirmed its end, the prophet turns his attention to the “Mountains of Israel” and their restoration. Through continued use of personification, one gains a deeper understanding of the value and sentiment the Lord has towards his property. God’s main concern is preservation of the inheritance for the true heir to the promises. The enemy temporarily possessed the land (36:2, 3, 5). Indeed, idolatry in the “mountains of Israel” caused God to send the nations to judge Israel by removing them from their promised inheritance (6:1–4). But when the enemy plundered God’s land, he took personal offense at their mockery (36:5). He is jealous for his land and what it suffered at the hand of the enemy (36:6). The enemy, whoever it might be,⁴⁵ ridiculed and scorned as they took possession of the mountains of Israel and left the land ravaged. He is against the boast of those who conquered the Promised Land, those living in the highlands sandwiched between the Jordan River and Mediterranean (36:3, 5; 35:10). Through retaliation he serves up divine justice. Thus, he swears by divine vow (now for the third time in this section) to snub the nations for the way they disparaged his people and land (36:7; see 20:5). God readdresses the mountains of Israel but in a positive way. For this reason, the land is designated in the larger section (36:1–15) as the “Mountains of Israel” (36:1 [2x], 4 [2x], 6, 8). He will trivialize the enemy (36:1–7), and by this divine dismissal he executes justice in the mountains.⁴⁶

36:8–15 Fruitfulness and favor in the mountains of Israel. Not only does God promise justice in the mountains of Israel, but he also promises restoration. Restoration comes because of God’s new disposition toward the mountains of Israel, which entails favor: “I am for you” (Lev 26:9). His favorable “turn” leads to restoration; this contrasts other statements of disfavor noted by the phrase “I am against you” elsewhere in the book (cf. Ezek 7:4, 9). He discusses restoration in terms of a return to the land, with fruitfulness, multiplication, and prosperity within it (36:10–11). The terminology is reminiscent of God’s blessing at creation and the terms of Abraham’s covenant (Gen 1:22, 28; 17:6; Exod 1:7). The land’s fruitfulness will allow a large population of people to live on it (“many people,” Ezek 36:10). He designates the large population as “all of Israel” (36:10), “my people Israel” (36:12). These statements emphasize that the rightful inhabitants (not only exiled Judah) will repossess the land according to God’s original promises (cf. Exod 6:6–7). Thus, in conclusion to the entire section from 35:1 to 36:15, God boldly declares that his efforts to reclaim the Promised Land will find success, evidenced by the statements concerning the occupants: “they will possess you” and “you will be their inheritance” (36:12). The language reflects rightful heirs re-inheriting God’s promises after a temporary loss. As it pertains to the future, never again will the land lack God’s people to possess it (36:12–13); hence, he describes an ongoing fruitfulness that seems to entail a more permanent situation (36:12–14). Repopulation of the land and abundance of life characterize the new norm free of taunt or scorn (36:15).

Another step in Israel’s restoration entails God reclaiming ownership of his estate so that the rightful heir may inherit it. God is a God of justice. As noted by others, the judgment of Edom represents “a foil for Israel’s salvation in 36:1–15” (Allen, 170–71). Through his just judgment on the enemy, he restores justice to his people and land scorned by the enemy. The inheritance and possession granted graciously to God’s people will not be lost, because it all depends on him. It is all about inheritance. Even if one foolishly spurns the inheritance, the Lord’s promises prevail. The land will be reassigned to those for whom it was originally intended. 

The loss of the land was needed for redemptive history to move forward. The goal was never attachment to a place but to the Lord (Deut 12). When God’s people returned to the land in 539 BC, however, no such circumstances arose for the returnees as described here in Ezekiel 36:8–15. Even a cursory reading of Ezra-Nehemiah reveals this. Given this reality the language suggests a fulfillment beyond that which was achieved in 539 BC. The New Covenant provides an inheritance beyond geographical boundaries (Jer 30–31; 32:36–44; cf. Lev 26:40–45; Deut 30:1–10). Perhaps Isaiah reflects the scope and magnitude of territorial expansion the best (Isa 54:3). Zechariah (Zech 2:11), Isaiah (Isa 60:3ff), and Ezekiel (Ezek 47:22–23) mention that the nations will share in Israel’s inheritance. In Acts, the Gospels, and especially Matthew, territorial expansion encompasses the entire world (Matt 28:16–20). Paul explains the mission to the Gentiles in terms of inheritance for true heirs according to sonship (Gal 3–4). The taunt of the enemy is very real today as it relates to our inheritance in God’s Kingdom. Ezekiel anticipates the enemy and God’s treatment of the enemy who taunts God’s people at the end of the age (Rev 20:11–15). Our heavenly inheritance is guaranteed and imperishable according to the authors of the NT (Eph 1:11–14; Col 1:13–14; 1Pet 1:3–5). Indeed, God’s people will inherit the New Earth described in Revelation as a result of abiding in Jesus (Rev 21:1–4, 10; John 15).

After securing the leadership of a righteous shepherd (ch. 34) and reclaiming the land inheritance for his people (35:1–36:15), Ezekiel 36:16–38 speaks of another obligatory aspect in the restoration process also related to land. In order to live in their God-given inheritance once again, improved conditions must prevail with the people themselves. God required a new heart and new spirit. The people needed this for two reasons. First, they contaminated the land by their conduct. God’s people made the Holy Land unholy because they had hardened and rebellious hearts. God warned Ezekiel at his call about the condition of his audience. The hard heart features as a prominent problem in several of Ezekiel’s oracles. Second, sin and its consequence of exile negatively affected God’s reputation among the nations. The Exodus event made them his people (Exod 6:6–7); as a result, they were meant to bear his name and reputation with honor (Exod 19:4–6; 20:7). Their failure to do so required divine intervention to restore honor to his holy name (36:16–23). God would return a cleansed people to the land of their ancestors. He initiates and does the cleansing himself with a life-giving outcome, one that allows them to experience his presence, follow him, and enjoy renewed fellowship with him (36:24–38). As a result of this gracious action, he attempts to acquire admission of guilt and a renewed self-awareness on the part of his people. Ultimately, this gracious act will demonstrate the Lord’s incomparability with other deities and serve to change his perception among the nations (36:22, 36). This major reorientation provides the way for God’s people to live in the land once again and for Yahweh to achieve vindication.

36:16–23 Sporting a bad reputation. From God’s perspective, “the house of Israel” lacked in holiness and right conduct. They defiled the land and profaned God’s name, a repeated point (36:17, 18, 20, 21). He graphically compares the nature of their ritual defilement of the land to that of a woman’s monthly period (Lev 15) and the contamination of body fluids (Ezek 36:17; see also ch. 16). Although not sinful, these natural body fluids kept the worshipper away from God’s presence in worship for a designated time (Lev 11:1–15:33). God describes the separation from their divine inheritance in this shocking way. From the divine angle, his wrath demonstrated in their eviction from the land illustrated a just and fair treatment. From the nations’ perspective, however, Israel’s dispersion pointed to a weakness in Yahweh’s character. They opined that Yahweh was unable to protect his people since another people’s god plundered his land and temple. The nations did not know that the exile was a consequence for Israel’s idolatry (36:20). The statement “These are the people of the Lord, and yet they had to go out of his land” reveals the wrong perspective of the nations (36:20). In this way Israel profaned God’s name to the outside world. God’s people sported a bad reputation in his eyes, and Yahweh sported a bad reputation in the eyes of the nations. Therefore, God promises to act (36:22–23). “I am about to act” (36:22, 32, 36), due to his maligned character, “for the sake of his holy name” (36:22, 23 [2x]). 

Motivated by passion to prove his uniqueness from other deities, he strives to reverse the wrong verdict about his character brought on by exile. The fundamental reason for intervention does not concern the reputation of his people (36:22). It concerns restoring his reputation and the holiness and greatness of his name (36:20, 21). To vindicate the holiness of God’s great name also means to “let your name be kept holy” or treated with reverence (cf. Matt 6:9). His actions will provide a contrast to what they did by “profaning his name” (i.e., treating it, and so him, without reverence). The type of intervention remains undefined in this section, but he highlights the promise of and rationale for an intervention. The reason given in chapter 20 for the withholding of divine punishment (20:9,14, 22) is here given as the reason for divine action: “The nations will know that I am the Lord” (36:23). He demands worldwide recognition of his status as the true God. Although the “recognition formula” appears repeatedly throughout the Book of Ezekiel (see Introduction), its significance here stands out (36:23). 

36:24–32 A bad reputation now restored. Now the Lord discloses his means of intervention to restore his reputation. God takes the initiative to bring them back to the land (36:24). But they will not live in the land as previously with all their defilements. A new situation emerges because he announces a divine cleansing. God does several things to ensure it. First, he sprinkles clean water on them (36:25). This refers to a ritual act of cleansing and symbolizes a renewed readiness for worship (see Exod 30:19–20; Lev 14:51; Num 19:18; Heb 10:22). Second, the cleansing will be thorough because he does it all himself, a God-initiated act and process from beginning to end (see Ezek 36:33; 37:23; Jer 33:8). Third, the cleansing entails a surgery of sorts. They need a new heart and new spirit (36:26). A “new heart . . . of flesh” implies a teachability and pliability, not a toughness like stone. The new spirit speaks of God’s spirit in them, a bestowal of the divine presence that enables the human spirit to do God’s will (see 37:14). The cleansing ultimately means a restored relationship between God and his people (36:28), expressed in covenant language recalling Exodus 6 (see Ezek 11:20). Finally, he speaks of the hoped-for response by his people (36:31–32). The cleansing and return to the land should overwhelm them and cause them to be disgusted with themselves and disgraced (36:32). He desires admission of guilt. This will make them feel “disgraced” in light of his grace. The intention is to make them alert of their true selves and to obtain awareness of the one and true God. The divine intervention spoken of here contains “new covenant” terminology (see Jer 31:33–34, cf. Ezek 11:19; 18:31). Ezekiel does not highlight human participation or cooperation in this cleansing process. This qualifies as a spiritual regeneration (36:26–32). What he envisions surpasses the return to the land in 539 BC.

36:33–38 The results of a restored reputation. Three results unfold because of God’s restorative work. “On the day that I cleanse,” referring to an unspecified time in the future that connects the promise of cleansing from sin (36:24–32) with the promise of repopulation (36:33–36), God first declares pristine conditions will abound. The garden of Eden language expresses this reality (36:35; cf. 28:13; 31:9). Second, on the “day” (36:33) of cleansing, the nations will feel the impact of Israel’s restoration (36:35; see 36:23). This statement reveals their new sentiment: “This land that was desolate has become like the garden of Eden, and the waste and desolate and ruined cities are now fortified and inhabited” (36:36). It also provides evidence that the nations now possessed the correct conclusion about Yahweh. He achieved the goal of reversing their wrong opinion about him (36:20). Third, God will yield to Israel’s pleas for his blessing (36:37–38). Previously, he refused to hear their pleas (8:18; 14:3; 20:3, 31); now, he hears. They can expect a blessing expressed in a population increase that will allow for unlimited and ongoing festivals and expressions of worship unto God (see 1Kgs 8:63; 1Chron 29:1; 2Chron 35:7). This cleansing and multiplication recall the Abrahamic blessings that summarizes Israel’s full restoration with God. All of this begs the question, When will the return to the land and cleansing of the people take place? The physical return in 539 BC (Ezra 1:1) was only the beginning of the fulfillment. Initially, the returnees tried to follow the Law of God and do things by the book (cf. Ezra 3:2, 4). They continued to fall short, however. God’s people re-contaminated the Holy land on account of the mixed marriages at the time of Ezra (9–10) and later with Nehemiah (Neh 13:23–31). Ezra even warns of the possibility of another exile (Ezra 9:13–15). While the people do exhibit some remorse and the leadership admits guilt (Ezra 10:1–2), something rare in Israelite history, the circumstances under the leadership of Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah do not correspond to that which Ezekiel describes. The language used in this text points beyond a physical return to the land associated with ethnic Israel. It anticipates realities involved with the New Covenant.

The return to the land and the cleansing concerns repairing God’s image and setting the record straight about his leadership to the broader world. He explains the problem, describes how he intends to act, and then gives the results of his intervention. His intervention entails the return to the land (36:24), cleansing from sin (36:25), renewal of heart and spirit (36:26), and enablement by God’s Spirit to live God’s way (36:27). Like Ezekiel, Jeremiah spoke of a time in the future when God will make a new covenant with the people of Israel and Judah out of necessity. They failed and broke his old covenant because of a heart condition. In this new covenant, God brings the corrective by a work he performs on their minds and hearts. He inscribes the Law on their hearts, a guarantee his people will keep his Law. They will bear his name and reputation; “I will be their God, and they will be my people” (Jer 31:33), and their godly conduct will bring him honor. The inscription of his Law on the heart also assures broad exposure and understanding of God’s true character: “they will all know me, from the least of them to the greatest” (Jer 31:31–34a). 

The cleansing and corrected communication that Ezekiel suggests about God’s character anticipates Jesus. In the incarnation God initiates restoration with fallen humankind deserving of death. We have robbed God of name recognition through our own idolatry (Rom 1). His name is defiled among the nations (Rom 2). As a result, God has to act for his name’s sake. He comes from heaven to earth in the incarnation. He appears and acts decisively. As noted by Jesus’s own claims and the miracles he performed, especially as they are outlined in the Gospel of John, the miracles were intended so that people would believe in Jesus. In so doing, not only would people be restored to God, but as a result they would also bring him name recognition —Jesus Christ IS the Son of God! Through his work on the cross, we have initially received spiritual restoration, but only because of the accompanying work of the Holy Spirit can one give Jesus name recognition! “No one can say Jesus is Lord except in the Holy Spirit” (1Cor 12:3). The inward work of God’s Spirit in the New Covenant offers a major reorientation to live a holy life with respect to our heavenly inheritance. Paul’s charge to “imitate Christ” (Eph 5:1–2) pertains to a lifestyle marked by godliness (Eph 4:1–5:33). Yet in and through our theological failures we profane God’s name with unholy living. Non-Christ-followers observe and gather information about the God whom Christ-followers proclaim to follow. God’s reputation is on the line, and so he acts to vindicate his holy name and sets the record straight as he restores believers unto himself by the regenerating and sanctifying work of the Spirit in the church. The hard hearts of the old covenant give way to new hearts (Rom 7–8), hearts able to obey in the new covenant. Paul reminds, too, of the reality that new hearts and new bodies will one day exist (1Cor 15).

After securing the leadership of a righteous shepherd (ch. 34) and reclaiming the land inheritance (35:1–36:15), and after the giving of a new heart and spirit to enable holy living in the Holy Land (36:16–38), Ezekiel 37 provides proof of the heart surgery’s success. Dead people come back to life due to God’s presence and will live in their own land (37:1–14). The chapter commences with the first of two visions Ezekiel experiences after the fall of the city (so too 40:2). The “valley of dry bones” refers to the death-like nature of exile but promises the impossible: out of death comes life, life together with the Lord in the land (see 36:26–27). The vision provides a profound answer to the hopelessness of God’s people who cannot see a way forward spiritually in exile. It states with certitude they will go home. God addresses Ezekiel’s audience, particularly the human sentiment of the equation, in this section. The chapter ends with the last of Ezekiel’s sign-acts, the joining together of two sticks to represent a unified nation (37:15–28). God will reunite all the tribes—not only Judah, but all “the sons of Israel” as well (37:21) in an unprecedented unity to live with him permanently in his everlasting kingdom (37:24–28). Given the language used, Ezekiel speaks of an everlasting restoration, one that endures. He speaks of an eschatological restoration that surpasses the return from exile in 539 BC. Both the vision and the visual elevate God’s perspective over against the human perspective. It encourages Ezekiel’s audience to embrace a God lens as a key to resilience while in exile. The vision and the visual also reveal why God brings them home: “And you shall know that I am the Lord” (37:6, 13, 14, 28). Those who experience his grace and see it from afar (the nations) will understand his character in a more intimate way.

37:1–3 A vision of the curse of death and defilement. The divine Spirit (37:1) takes Ezekiel on another field trip (cf. 1:4; 8:1), a trip to an open graveyard. Through first person narration Ezekiel takes the reader with him. He sees a wide plain that accommodates large quantities of bones ‘very many’. He describes their quality as bleached skeletal remains or ‘very dry’. The latter suggests the passing of a long period of time in this condition. The imagery reflects an abandoned battlefield suitable for large armies to muster such as was done in the Valley of Jezreel, in Israel’s topography. The sight invokes the curse of death through military defeat. But it also represents a double curse because no one properly disposed of the dead bodies after battle (cf. Saul). This reflects a profoundly unclean scene as Biblical law views corpses as unclean, a fate reserved for God’s worst enemies in the likes of Jezebel. It symbolizes the enduring nature of defilement and uncleanness generation after generation, a family tomb image turned on its head. The openness of the sight enables him not only to see the quantity of bones but also the double curse on them. The curse of death surrounds him as he walks through the rubble of bones (see Introduction; cf. chapters 4–24). What he envisions magnifies hopelessness due to death. The physical death expressed through the imagery speaks to the finality of the situation and the impossibility of change. 

However, on the heels of his tour through an ancient battlefield, God, the military guide, asks Ezekiel a ridiculous question: “Son of man, can these bones live?” (37:3a). He confronts Ezekiel’s human perspective on the hopelessness of death and its curse. Ezekiel wisely responds, “O Lord God, you know” (37:3b). Ezekiel the priest, one knowledgeable in Torah, defers to God’s perspective, one that transcends realities far beyond the realm of what is possible. The question challenges Ezekiel to look beyond the natural circumstances and to God’s sovereignty. 

37:4–10 Meaning of the vision: Curse of death removed. God immediately provides the answer for Ezekiel. He strikes a hopeful chord in what he commands Ezekiel to do. Ezekiel must prophesy over “these bones” to hear the word of the Lord (37:4). They need to hear that God will cause life to come out of death by means of a breath (37:5, 6). This evokes the spoken word at creation. Thus, God offers an answer to Ezekiel immediately after posing the question. Life will come out of death due to divine intervention (37:4–6). The dramatic demonstration that follows illustrates this fact. Ezekiel prophesies to the bones as commanded by the Lord. He describes what he sees in two stages (37:7–10). The initial stage reflects something entirely supernatural: corpses reassembled! The dead bones respond to the prophetic word with a sound and commotion reminiscent of an earthquake. But the reassembled corpses still lack breath and life (37:7–8). Now Ezekiel must prophesy to “the breath.” Stage two reflects something even more stunning and supernatural. “A breath came into them” (37:10). Breath and life are connected numerous times in the passage (37:5, 6, 9, 10). Now he sees bodies with breath, full of life. This evokes the creation of Adam and Eve. The breath (“wind” or “spirit”) gives new life evidenced by the statement that “they stood on their feet.” This also reminds of the successful heart surgery God performed (36:26). This force not only provides life but a transformed life, a new existence in numbers and stamina. Earlier he mentioned he saw “very many” bones (37:2), but now he sees “an exceedingly great army” (37:10). The army of the Lord has been reconstituted, and a new creation emerges. In this two-fold process, the Lord recreates in a fashion like the original creation through the word and divine Spirit.⁴⁷ Thus, the vision demonstrates that because of divine intervention, a new group of humans exist; dry bones CAN live (37:3). Only the supernatural can remove the curse of death.

37:11–14 Meaning of the vision: The sting of death removed. The military imagery is now given a concrete identification. The very dry bones (37:2) represent “the whole house of Israel,”⁴⁸ not only those in exile, but those also who have long been displaced from the Northern Kingdom, those that suffered former military defeat and exile. The statement “our hope is lost; and we are indeed cut off” (37:11) captures the emotional and theological sting of all his people who experienced exile as a death-like consequence for sin. The bones illustrate the sentiments of the people who feel they are as good as dead (37:11). With the city and temple destroyed, their theological framework became unraveled, and they ceased to exist. A strong hopelessness ensued due to the severing of the promises of God. Only the supernatural can remove the emotional sting of death.

God commands Ezekiel for a third time to prophesy but now to identified bones (37:12). God addresses the whole house of Israel, those he tenderly designates twice as “O my people” (37:12, 13). This means of address shows the deep affection God still maintains for them in the relationship. He detached himself from them only temporarily (Hos 1). He repeats the fact that a future awaits them, now described in concrete terms of a resurrection. God will open graves and raise them from their graves (37:12–13). Renewed hope lies in the belief that restoration from exile and sin’s consequences compares to a supernatural belief in a resurrection.⁴⁹ This points to the physical return from exile and the restoration under Cyrus in 539 BC. The point is profound. God promises a chronological end to sin’s consequences. They will go home. A hopeful future does await them. The death and resurrection motifs describe the exile and return, respectively. God causes it to happen (37:12, 13); he will return them to their own land (37:12, 14). Only the supernatural can remove the theological sting of death. 

The concluding statement of this section guarantees such arrangements (37:14). God declares, “I will put my Spirit within you and you shall live.” This clear connection between breath (37:5, 6, 8, 9 [2x], 10) and his Spirit reflects the life-giving power of God. The Hebrew word ruah is used ten times in fourteen verses. Without the divine presence, no hope of a future exists for the people of God. The picture that unfolds reflects a new act of creation. God recreates his people into a standing army, resurrected from the defilement and sin’s curse of death, now alive and re-inheriting his promises due to the divine initiative and divine presence (37:14). Through the vision Ezekiel sees two competing realities, the natural versus the supernatural. Only the supernatural can remove both the emotional and theological sting of death. Although the restoration clock commences with the events of 539 BC, Ezekiel’s vision depicts so much more. Ezekiel 37:1–14 represents the Old Testament version of the power of God described in Ephesians 1–2.

37:15–28 Meaning of vision: Tribal reunification. After assuring they will go home, this section draws attention to those headed home. God requires one final sign-act of Ezekiel (37:15–17) and offers its interpretation (37:18–28). It is the only one that occurs after the fall of the city. The sign directly connects to the vision of dry bones because it defines “the whole house of Israel” (37:11) more specifically. The rightful heirs include all the original tribes associated with God’s original promises. He shows that restoration also includes a reunification of the nation under one shepherd/king. Not only does Ezekiel illustrate the unity God intends in the restoration but he also speaks of an eternal restoration. 

37:15–23 One nation in the land: The family tree restored. This last visual in the book involves Ezekiel writing two different names on two pieces of wood (a material object of some sort) and then making one piece of wood in place of the two (37:15–17.) This recalls the arboreal imagery of Isaiah and the promise of a new branch to shoot up from a stump (Isa 11:1ff). He writes the name Judah on one. This designation represents the entire Southern Kingdom, the dominant tribe of the south. He writes the name Joseph on the other. This designation represents the entire Northern Kingdom, dominated mainly by Ephraim. Joseph was the father of Ephraim and Manasseh (Gen 48:5, 8–20). By using the name of Joseph, it avoids the negative connotation associated with their divisive past that commenced with Jeroboam I who hailed from Ephraim (1Kgs 12:25). God promises to restore the ethnic unity of the twelve tribes; “The whole house of Israel” will live in the land (37:11). Ezekiel’s actions represent another supernatural God-initiated act whereby he promises restoration of the family tree: “I will make them one stick . . . one in my hand” (37:19). God intended that the people continually see the piece of wood not merely as a reminder of this promised reunification but also of the momentous shift that will take place in redemptive history: from the removal of the curse of death to a new creation and now to a tribal reunification (37:20). 

Since Solomon’s death (1Kgs 12) the nation experienced irreparable fractures. The renewed circumstances include a regathering of the “sons of Israel,” a statement referring to their ethnic unity so that they can live in “their own land” (37:21). It will be one nation “in the land, on the mountains of Israel” with one king (37:22). The king will lead sanctified citizens, law-abiding ones who are moral and pure because God takes the initiative to “save” and “sanctify” them (37:23; cf. 36:27). This will prevent serious internal turmoil and conflict from unfolding in the future. Israelite history will not repeat itself; exile, death, tribal disunity, and the end of dynastic succession become things of the past. One nation with one king results in nothing less than a repaired relationship between God and his people; hence, a restatement of the covenant formula, “They shall be my people, and I will be their God.” The formula provides evidence of a restored identity, one that echoes the initial goal of the exodus, God’s first rescue mission on behalf of his people (see 11:20; 37:27). 

37:24–28 Permanent conditions: One shepherd to rule in the land. Ezekiel underscores the unity and longevity of the anticipated new situation (37:15–23) as the chapter draws to a close (37:24–28). First, with the resurrection of kingship, he provides a unity not achieved previously with Israel’s shepherds. It marks, too, another enormous shift in their history. The king of this reunified nation mentioned earlier (37:23) is now identified as “my servant David.” He will lead a nation with a reunified purpose to follow God’s laws (37:24). They will be a people marked by holiness, rebranded with the name of their God and without corruption. The nature of the kingdom David rules entails a security not experienced before. The Lord describes the permanency of four things highlighted by the repetition of Hebrew term olam (“forever”) five times (37:25 [2x], 26 [2x], 28). First, it entails a permanent occupancy in the land by the heirs to God’s promises throughout the generations (37:25). Second, David’s kingship abides (37:25). The mention of the land promise with respect to Jacob “my servant” ties Jacob together with David. It merges the patriarchal promises about the land with the monarchical promises about kingship and speaks of ideal conditions only hoped for but never experienced. Third, these realities unfold in an agreement that the Lord draws up described as “a covenant of peace, an everlasting covenant (37:26). David’s unified rule will be characterized by permanent peace and a population explosion (34:25; so too Gen 9:16; 17:7; 2Sam 23:5; Jer 32:40). The charter for the renewed nation promises security (34:25; 16:60). The previous threats of exile, death, tribal disunity, and the end of dynastic succession are buried forever by the ushering in of “everlasting peace” (37:26).

A permanent temple. Thus, with such superb conditions in place, God declares the fourth enduring situation (37:26, 28). He will set up his sanctuary, a visible manifestation of his favor towards his people and sovereignty over his territory. He takes responsibility to erect it himself and does not command his people to build it (37:26). He promises two things: “my sanctuary” (mikdash) will be in their midst forever (37:26, 28), and “My dwelling (mishkan) place shall be with them” (37:27). Both terms are used of the tabernacle that God required Israel to build in the wilderness under the Mosaic covenant (Exod 25: 8–9). It marked a temporary holy space and place for Yahweh. The terms also recall a more permanent holy space and place marked by Solomon’s temple under the Davidic covenant (1Sam 7). However, unlike these previous structures, this holy place and space will stand forever. This represents another massive shift from the conditional nature and previous situation of Jerusalem in the past (cf. Jer 7). Now the presence of the Lord in his temple will be permanent and not predicated upon people’s failure or faithfulness. His goal of a long-term relationship with his people finds fulfillment. It reminds of God’s intentions and desires since Eden, to make humankind his habitation (Gen 1–3). These verses echo the Davidic covenant (promise of eternal kingship), the Sinaitic covenant (expectations of holy living), and the Abrahamic covenant (promise of the holy land), which find fulfillment in the covenant of peace (Ezek 37:26). This supremely unholy vision of defilement is replaced by one of sanctity. Finally, the outcome of this entire sanctification process noted especially by his fixed presence with them offers a loud communication of his character to the nations. He does for Israel what she cannot do for herself: “I am the Lord who sanctifies Israel” (37:28). Holy people can live with a holy God because of his supernatural power.

The vision shows the reality of the curse of death and the profound defilement sin caused. However, God deletes the imagery of the valley of dry bones and replaces it with another vision of life. Eternal peace has been secured; no more death in battle or defilement in the land (a double curse); no more exile or schism. God gives Ezekiel a vision of a new people, a new unity, a new covenant, and a new temple. This covenant of peace points to the New Covenant. Jesus removes the curse of death and its emotional sting of hopelessness. Peter summarizes the imagery of Ezekiel with the creative power of God manifested in Christ’s resurrection: “Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ! According to his great mercy, he caused us to be born again to a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead to an inheritance that is imperishable, undefiled, and unfading, kept in heaven for you, who by God’s power are being guarded through faith for a salvation ready to be revealed in the last time” (1Pet 1:1–5). Ephesians, too, reminds that we were dead, but God made us alive together with Christ (Eph 2:1–5). “He himself is our peace, who has made us both one . . . that he might create in himself one new man in place of the two, so making peace” (Eph 2:14–16). The spirit (pneuma) enables the life-giving process from beginning to end and gives hope for a future inheritance (Eph 1:13–14, 18, 19). Christ’s supernatural work removes the emotional and theological sting of death. Jesus gives us God’s perspective on sin and its consequences and a deeper revelation of his character: “When you have lifted up the Son of Man, then you will know that I am he” (John 8:28). God comes to us through the person of Jesus and pulls us up out of the grave, out of the exile of sin and death. We will return home! We will be united as a people of God; we will be a united people of God from every tribe and tongue (Rev 7:9–17) in his permanent presence (Rev 21:22), and he will get all the glory (Rev 7:10, 12; Phil 2:10–11). Although Israel’s national revival is in view, something that commenced in 539 BC, this act of being vivified and unified points beyond to the resurrected life through the Spirit of Christ (John 11:25–26; Rom 8:9–17; Col 3:1–4). God recreates through his Word and Spirit.

Ezekiel 38–39 provides the next logical step in the restoration process Ezekiel envisions, a process that commenced with the announcement of a righteous shepherd as the first step (34:11ff). After he enlivens and unites his people in their land (37:1–28), and after declaring the permanent nature of their restoration (37:25, 26 [2x], 28), Ezekiel 38–39 shows the indestructible character of the restoration. Even though the unity and peace of God’s people meets a serious challenge, the enduring rest and security promised will prevail because of the power of the divine warrior. These two chapters describe a major attack by Gog and his allies (38:4–6) on God’s restored people. The battle brings great peril to God’s people and upheavals in the natural world. God must destroy his enemies from abroad, Gog of Magog and all his hoards (38:1–39:29). Ezekiel speaks of the army’s downfall at the Lord’s command (38:1–3, 7–13) with three prophecies (38:1–13, 14–23; 39:1–16). The number of the fallen warriors is such that this “sacrifice” provides a feast for predators (39:17–20). God fights to protect and keep alive his united people and wins (chs. 38–39). This win will provide unshakable confidence about the enduring nature of what God promised with the covenant of peace. God’s victory over Gog delivers a decisive assertion about his supremacy and sovereignty. The nations will know the real cause of Israel’s earlier exile, that God purposefully withdrew due to Israel’s unfaithfulness (39:21–24). The victory will also reveal that Israel’s God is truly the Holy One (39:25–29). The exiles and future generations will also know the purpose of this tragic event in their history (39:27–29). For exiled Israelites, their protection against an enemy even more perilous than the Babylonians would grant them great assurance as they anticipate the future. Thus, before the covenant of peace (34:25–31; 37:26–28) can become a full reality with the establishment of his abiding presence by means of a temple (chs. 40–48), he must address all opposition that might hinder its longevity. Ezekiel 38–39 addresses any future threats. The promise of the impregnability of Zion finds fulfillment (Jer 7).

38:1–9 A new enemy rises up. As instructed many times previously, God asks Ezekiel to set his face against an enemy, here referencing someone named Gog (38:2). The name of this leader appears only in Ezekiel (chs. 38–39) and in the Book of Revelation (20:8). Although precise identifications have been attempted, notably Gyges, King of Lydia (c. 660 BC), the narrative gives little specifics. Some have supposed Gog references a Babylonian leader since mention of Babylon is strangely missing in Ezekiel’s Oracles Against the Nations (chs. 25–32). Possibly the name is not worthy of being precisely identified, like the nameless Pharaoh in Exodus. Gog’s entire domain is designated the “land of Magog.” Since the prefix ma- can mean “place of,” Magog likely refers to the territory belonging to Gog. Gog’s status is that of a military commander-in-chief, “chief prince of Meshek and Tubal.” The ESV/NIV text note, following LXX, gives the unlikely translation “prince of Rosh.” Rosh is the transliteration of the Hebrew word for head. This improbable LXX “Rosh” would then be the name of an otherwise unknown people or place. Meshek and Tubal are well known and were sons of Japheth (see Gen 10:2 and note; 1Chron 1:5). The two names, given their origin, probably refer to a geographical identification (rather than a people group) in eastern Asia Minor or modern-day Turkey (cf. Ezek 27:13; 32:26, in pit for burial). As he did in the past (cf. Isa 10:5–6), God awakens this enemy but for different purposes (Ezek 38:4; 39:2).

The focal point in this section concerns the description of the members of the collation noted by their geographical orbit and weaponry. Gog reigns over peoples and territories to the north of Israel and south (38:5, 6, 15; 39:2). The appearing of an enemy from the north joins forces with those from the east (Persia), the south (Put or Libya, Cush or the upper Nile region), and the remote north (Gomer and Beth Togarmah or Turkey). Together these troops from all sides will assemble themselves for a sudden siege (38:8). Israel had long experienced the hostility of the Hamites and other Semitic peoples; the future coalition here envisioned will include—and in fact be led by—peoples descended from Japheth (cf. Gen 10). In the days of the Assyrians and Babylonians, the major attack came from the north, but here it is the remote north, south, and east. This geographical scope contributes to the image of a surprise attack and draws attention to the vastness of the armies associated with Gog. The vastness also expresses itself through repeated terms “whole army” (38:4), “all its troops” (38:6), “many nations” (38:6), “all the hordes” (38:7), and “all your troops and the many nations with you” (38:9). He also describes the enemy by calling attention to the formidable weaponry associated with the gathered forces (38:4). Accordingly, the enemy coming upon the land is described with theophanic storm cloud imagery (38:9, 16; cf. ch. 1). 

This intimidating description of the enemy contrasts with the description of the land and people upon whom the storm cloud will fall. From God’s perspective, the land and its people have achieved a level of safety for a considerable amount of time. Since the time for the call to arms does not occur until “after many days” and “in future years” (38:8 [2x]), this suggests a substantial passing of time during which some of the effects of the covenant of peace have been enforced. Moreover, the time of this battle “after many days” and “in the latter years,” or “on that day,” repeated nine times in twenty-three verses, draws attention to the event and magnifies it (38:8 [2x], 10, 14, 16, 17, 18 [2x], 19). This represents typical prophetic language that speaks of the eschatological future, a special time determined by God for either judgment or restoration. In this case, it refers to a day of judgment. It points to “the great day of God Almighty” when the kings of the world assemble for the final eschatological battle (Rev 16:14; 17:14; 19:19; 20:7–10). 

Some modern interpreters have periodically connected this enemy with modern-day Russia. Such identification derives from faulty etymological assumptions that suggest since the Hebrew term rosh (“head” or “chief”) sounds like Russia, it must refer to a ruler in Russia. Even those who assign a modern label of the former Soviet Union (the Russian Federation) dismiss this etymological connection between Russia and Rosh (cf. Dyer, “Ezekiel,” in Bible Knowledge Commentary, 1299). Equally tenuous is the etymological relationship between Meshek/Moscow and Tubal/Tobolsk. Consequently, geographical interpretations of Gog’s realm, which lies far north of Israel, as specifically modern-day Russia must also be rejected. Attempts to associate the invaders with modern countries fail to recognize Ezekiel’s prophetic symbolic genre and risk missing the main point: God will arouse a universal foe in the future to spring a surprise attack on God’s people.

38:10–13 The advancing enemy mindset. Even though Gog advances on the basis of God’s divine initiative (38:4; 39:2), the prophet shows the human psyche involved in the process (38:10): an arrogant boast of self-confidence reminiscent of the Assyrian or Egyptian kings (cf. Isa 10:7–11; Exod 9:17). Through use of the first-person (Ezek 38:11 [2x], 12), Ezekiel exposes the mindset of the enemy. The enemy’s perception of God’s people underscores Israel is living out the realities of the covenant of peace. This surprise attack reveals Israel’s physical and emotional vulnerability and why the nation is considered an easy prey. Moreover, the enemy also notes the land as a rich environment for plunder. The strategic geographical placement at the “center of the earth,” or “navel” in Hebrew, provides a graphic image of Israel as the vital link to the rest of the world, a position given them by God (cf. 5:5). Since the Hebrew for “land” can also mean “earth,” theologically Jerusalem can also be interpreted as both the center of the land of Israel and the center of the world. This strategic location allows onlookers, those from geographically distant places, to witness the event and the prowess of the enemy (38:13). 

38:14–16 The enemy advance predicted by God and its purposes: A revelation of holiness to the nations. After hearing of the enemy’s intentions, the perspective now returns to the Lord. He predicts that the advance will take place under his sovereign control (38:16). He further identifies the quiet and unsuspecting people noted earlier (38:11) as “my people Israel” (38:14), with the noted emphasis already of their security (38:14) in “my land” (38:16). This shows the ongoing affection the Lord maintains for his own and his sovereignty of his territory. He reinforces the intimidating portrait of the enemy already established (38:4–6) by describing them as a “vast army” (38:15) from the north (38:15; cf. 38:6; 1:4; Jer 4:13). The language employed here matches exactly the description of the dry bones coming to life. God brought to life a vast standing army (37:10), and now he predicts they will face an exceedingly large enemy army. 

While he purposefully describes the overwhelming nature of the enemy, the purpose of the enemy’s incursion into Israel comes into focus. God will use Gog as an agent of revelation to the world rather than as an instrument of judgment against his people (38:16, 23; 39:6–7, 21, 23). The first mention of his purposes (38:16) pertains to assuring that the nations experience first-hand the full measure of the knowledge of the Lord. His ongoing protection and safety for his people remain immovable; therefore, he sets himself apart from all other gods. What the Lord does with Gog harkens back to the revelation of God in Exodus (Exod 7:3–5; 14:4). Thus, Gog becomes the locus of the revelation, not the agent through whom his holiness manifests itself (following Block, 451). The uniqueness of the Lord, “Who is like you, O Lord, among the gods? Who is like you, majestic in holiness?” (Exod 15:11ff; cf. Isa. 45:5), is now displayed to the nations, represented here by Gog and his hordes. 

38:17–23 The enemy advance predicted by the prophets and its purposes: A revelation of greatness and holiness to the nations. Gog is not an afterthought but “he of whom I spoke in former days” as part of God’s plan to deal with all opposition to his holiness. This is, perhaps, a general reference to earlier prophetic messages of divine judgment on the nations. The OT prophets routinely spoke of “the day of the Lord” or “on that day” as a decisive moment when the Lord would dispense his vengeance on all his enemies (e.g., Obad 15; Joel 3:2, 14). The advance predicted here displays the wrath of God on par with previous general statements about such a day in the prophets. Likewise, just as God’s wrath was emptied on Egypt in Exodus, on his own people in Ezekiel (chs. 4–24), and on Israel’s neighbors (chs. 25–32), it is now dispensed on Gog, the final enemy. The outpouring of divine rage on the enemies of God’s people causes upheavals in the natural world (38:19–20; see Jer 4:23–26). The total scope of nature is affected by this cosmic manifestation of the divine presence. Accordingly, the threefold use of the first-person pronoun (38:21, 22 [2x]) emphasizes the stormy presence of God coming to judge the enemy. He summons the sword and the plague and rains down on the enemy for all to see (38:22). The irony is that God’s standing army (37:10) will not need to lift a finger to fight against Gog and his hordes. The divine warrior will fight and smite on their behalf as he did with Egypt and Pharaoh (Exod 14:13–14). The suddenness of the victory matches the suddenness of the attack.

The result of this day of tumult and decisive defeat? Here we find another mention of God’s purposes for the advance (38:23; cf. 38:16). The ultimate purpose of the battle is not unlike God’s use of Pharaoh in Exodus (38:22–23; cf. Exod 4–14). This battle reveals God’s supremacy over a powerful enemy who tries to tamper with the security of God’s people. Ultimately, it manifests his greatness and holiness. In demonstration of his power over ALL opposition and threats to his reputation, God protects his people in a decisive response. It anticipates the final judgment when God reveals his sovereignty over all forces of evil (Rev 16–20; 2Thes 2). 

39:1–8 The disarmament of the enemy and its purposes: A permanent revelation of the Holy One in Israel. Opposition to Gog is reiterated but with more graphic details and finality. God removes Gog’s threat by disarming the enemy, which allows for their fateful fall (39:3–4; cf. Jer 6:23). This causes the adversary to become food for birds of prey (39:4) in anticipation of the sacrificial feast described later (39:17–20). Fire, too, as divine judgment sweeps through Magog, Gog’s territory, and that of the nations. In this downfall God reiterates his revelatory purposes for the “coastlands” or onlooking Gentile nations that opposed God (39:6; 38:23): recognition due Yahweh. His people, too, will have a fresh revelation, particularly of his holy name (39:7a). This reality will know no end (39:7b) because he will designate himself as “the Holy One in Israel” (39:8; see Isa 12:6; 43:3 for “the Holy One of Israel”). Holiness mentioned three times in one verse (39:7) provides the solution to the problem of the bad reputation he earned among the nations due to Israel’s unholiness. Holiness in Israel will be permanent and possible because of his overturning of the enemy. He ends with a declaration of the surety of the event (39:8) using familiar language to describe Israel’s judgment in the past (cf. 24:14; 21:7 [Eng.], Masoretic Text 21:12). He announces the end of all opposition to God, thereby achieving name recognition and the enduring circumstances of the Covenant of Peace. 

39:9–16 The burial of the enemy to cleanse the land. Gog’s spoil (39:9–10) and burial (39:11–16) finalize the removal of the threat. God’s people emerge from the situation unscathed (39:9) and take full advantage. The enemies’ weaponry becomes useful for God’s people for seven years, a number symbolizing completeness (39:9). They loot and plunder their adversary as it had been done to them. In addition, God requires a burial site for the enemy (39:11). First, he selects and names the site. Mention of the “Valley” probably refers to the Jezreel Valley/Megiddo (which runs from the Mediterranean in the west to the Jordan River in the east). This valley is filled to the brim with dead bodies, blocking travel and underscoring the large threat that this enemy previously posed. The name “Hamon Gog” means “the hordes of Gog” (see NIV text note). The imagery also evokes the cursed bones of Ezekiel 37:1–2, but now the nations are the recipient of the Lord’s judgment and wrath.

Second, he states the purpose for the burial site. The land requires a cleansing (39:12, 14, 16). Dead bodies contaminated people and the land (Num 19:11–22). The burial of dead bodies provided a ritual purification. Since God’s people have been cleansed (Ezek 36:24–32), they need to live in a cleansed land. In fact, a special search party seeks any human remains to ensure complete ritual purification (39:14). It takes the “Israelites” seven months to bury Gog and his multitudes (39:12; cf. 39:9). The timeframe reflects the importance of the “holy land,” the task’s size, and the burial’s thoroughness. The burial site (39:11) and process (39:12) will draw attention to “the people of the land” and to the Lord. With respect to the former, the people gain a renown (leshem) due to their meticulous efforts to cleanse the land (39:13). With respect to the latter, he refers to it as “the day I show my glory” (39:13), so the moment merits divine recognition. Through the defeat of Gog, he reveals his holiness, greatness, and glory. The defiled battlefield is now sanctified, in a similar fashion as the ancient battlefield in Ezekiel 37 was cleansed.

39:17–20 The celebratory feast over the enemy’s demise. God commands Ezekiel to summon nature to a huge banquet meal for predators in celebration of Gog’s defeat. The metaphor of sacrifice suggests a consecration to God in judgment (see Jos 6:17). The corpses of the victims are compared to animals used for sacrifices, “You shall eat the flesh of the mighty . . . of rams” (39:18). Eating the fat and drinking the blood of the sacrificial victim evokes the Levitical sacrificial system (Lev 3:16; 1Sam 2:15). Gluttony and drunkenness characterize this feast (39:19) and complete this bleak picture of the fate reserved for God’s enemies (Isa 34:6–8; Zeph 1:7; Rev 19:17–21). 

39:21–24 The immediate purpose: God’s glory displayed and vindicated among the nations. The theological significance of Gog’s defeat now comes into focus (39:21–22). The day of Gog’s defeat establishes God’s justice over an enemy who attempted to hurt innocent people. The day of Gog’s defeat also establishes his presence among the nations. With the demise and defeat of Gog, similar to that of Pharaoh (Exod 6:6–7; 7:5; 14:18), comes the promise that God will display his glory, a crowning moment underlining his presence among the nations. When his glory is displayed as indicated with the final vision of the book (43:1–12), for Israel it will reaffirm his unique status as “their God.” Only Yahweh can rescue and save. Moreover, the nations will know why God exiled his people: his justice, not powerlessness or cowardice, sealed Israel’s fate (cf. Deut 31:16–18). Their unholiness and iniquity caused the exile. These statements dispel popular misconceptions by God’s people and the onlooking nations about Israel’s downfall. As an expression of divine abandonment, he hid his face in anger (39:23, 24; see 39:29). 

39:25–29 The everlasting purpose of divine vindication: God’s glory forever among his people. Gog’s defeat means full restoration for God’s people to his promises, namely, the land. It also means full restoration of his holy character. The exile is temporary, and a return home is the hope. God’s mercy and compassion towards his people fuel the restoration (39:25). The basis for confidence is the supernatural work of God. Things now will be radically different. God is going to restore the fortunes of Jacob (39:25) to pre-judgment conditions and a reversal of the judgment (see also 16:53 for Sodom and 29:14 for Egypt). God’s mercy brings an end to their shame (39:26). This reversal stands as a contrast to the times when remembrance of shame comes due to God’s judgment (see 6:9; 20:43; 36:31). In both restoration (God’s mercy) and judgment (God’s justice), the self-perception of God’s people gets adjusted. Accordingly, his holy character will be displayed. In contrast to God’s hidden face (39:23), he promises visibility once again, a time when “I will pour out my Spirit,” which reflects the reality of the divine presence in the restoration process (see 36:27; 37:14; see also Joel 2:28). This statement (39:29) prepares the reader for what Ezekiel sees in the final vision of the book (chs. 40–48) and the climactic moment of the restoration promised. Ezekiel’s vision of the end is not yet complete, however. Now that God has fought and won to protect his purified and unified people (chs. 36–39), only one thing remains, to show his glory. In what follows, Ezekiel sees God’s permanent residence with his purified, unified people and his unending glory.

This battle initiated by God, the timing of the assault, the disarmament, burial, and feast all have one purpose: a powerful demonstration of God’s holy character. He deals with ALL opposition that mars his character. In so doing he reveals his supremacy and power. To be sure, the biblical record demonstrates that God deals decisively with all opposition and challenges to his character and plans: from opposition in the garden by the serpent; in Egypt by Pharaoh; in Canaan by the inhabitants of the land (including by some members of Israel, cf. Josh 7); in Israel and Judah by unfaithful kings (2Kgs 17; 21); among the nations by the nations (e.g. Assyria, cf. Nah 1–3); and, finally, in exile by God’s own people (the Book of Ezekiel itself)! 

However, what Ezekiel also vividly foreshadows is the specificity of a future, sudden, and seemingly overwhelming threat against God’s people immediately preceding God’s ultimate triumph over evil. Other prophets mention this ‘surge of evil’ (Zech 14; Isa 27:1; Dan 7:25), but Ezekiel brings a level of detail that NT writers will take on, including Jesus in the Olivet Discourse (Matt 24; Mark 13; Luke 21; cf. Dan 8; 2Thes 2). The Book of Revelation uses the imagery of Ezekiel in vivid parallels. Ezekiel’s eschatological battle points to a final epic confrontation discussed in Revelation (see Richard Bauckham’s The Climax of Prophecy). All enemies of the Lord—kings, nations, peoples, deceived and energized by the devil, the beast and the false prophet—are gathered for the ultimate “battle” at the end of times (see Rev 19:19–21; cf. Rev 16:14; 17:12–14; 20:7–10). Whether interpretations include a millennial interlude (see Rev 20:1–10) or not, Ezekiel prepares the way not only for this sudden threat but also for the assurance of total and complete victory against the forces of evil, the vindication of God’s character, and the inescapable judgment against all who have rejected the Lord Jesus Christ. 

This eschatological outcome, however, also points to a specific moment. What was started by the deceptive work of the serpent ends with the decisive work of the sovereign King of kings, first at the cross where he makes a public example of the devil (Col 2:15), and then in the consummation of the kingdom. Ezekiel 38–39 points forward first to the cross where the enemy of our soul was defeated by Christ. The battle truly belongs to the Lord (1Sam17:47; 2Chron 20:15). Thus, the cross and the triumph of the resurrection find their ultimate fulfillment in Revelation 19:17–21; 20:7–10. In Revelation, the vision of Ezekiel for the vindication of the holiness of the Lord is fulfilled. The unending worship song of those gathered around the throne of the sovereign king of the universe acknowledges, “Holy, holy, holy is the Lord God almighty” (Rev 4:8).

Reimagining worship: A new spiritual center characterized by holiness.⁵⁰ This is the last of Ezekiel’s visions, a familiar literary genre utilized in the book (1:1; 8:1; 37:1). Ezekiel sees a picture of restored worship, one that the exiles would have fully understood but with enough new elements to garner their attention. It shows an unhindered, undefiled, and unmediated relationship between the Lord and his people on a permanent basis. Their previous worship experience lacked these four components. Sacred space in the old land along with the land itself was defiled and compromised. The people and the leadership (priests and kings) were unclean. These chapters provide tangible evidence, a “visual” that life (restoration) does come out of death (exile). It represents a mental picture of what life with God can look like. Accordingly, the vision renders the old system of worship obsolete as they knew it because of the absence of holiness. It shows a clean worship space and clean people through an indestructible sacrificial system, one that keeps the land and people holy forever. In fact, Ezekiel summarizes and interprets what he sees by saying, “This is the law of the temple: All the surrounding area on top of the mountain will be most holy. Such is the law of the temple” (43:12). The name of this spiritual center, “The Lord is there” (40:35), reflects this new reality, an eschatological perspective meant to challenge the exiles in their current situation. 

The vision provides a visual of worship showing God’s unending presence with a holy people expressed in a known reality of the past, Solomon’s temple. It does not serve as a template to build another temple because no command is given to build it, unlike past building projects. Ezekiel’s vision doesn’t follow Moses, who received a command and blueprint from God to build (Exod 25–31; cf. 25:8) and then carried it out (Exod 35–40). Nor does the vision follow Solomon’s blueprint of the temple (1Kgs 6–7:51). God does require, however, clear communication by Ezekiel to his audience on par with his previous two visions (Ezek 11:25; 37:12). The Lord instructs him to communicate to the exiles what he sees, not to build what he sees (40:4). The reminders throughout the vision of his audience provide the context and purpose (40:4; 43:9–11; 44:5–6). In typical prophetic fashion, he describes future realities with familiar language and images that Ezekiel’s audience would have recognized (priesthood, the land, the temple, God’s presence). The vision, along with all the elements of restoration previously noted (chs. 34–39), is meant to transform them spiritually, demonstrating that true restoration stems from a heart transformation that leads to a lifestyle change. At the outset of the vision,⁵¹ the reader is led to consider meaning for the exiles but not in isolation from the clear eschatological future of restoration pictured here. 

In terms of the literary placement of the vision in the book, it serves as a grand finale to the theme of restoration that commences in chapter 34. Restoration reaches its climax with the return of God’s glory to this temple (43:1–5), making the complex that Ezekiel envisions here a spiritual center once again. With the return of his glory, Yahweh’s seat of sovereignty is secure and permanent (43:1–7). All threats to his sovereignty have been defeated with the demise of Gog and his hordes (chs. 38–39). Likewise, all threats to his holiness have been addressed (ch. 34–37) because God has cleansed his people from their sin and the land from its enemies (chs. 34–37). In its immediate literary context, the vision contemplates “the day” when God will display his glory, the day just promised (39:13, 21). It demonstrates how God “will not hide” but will reside permanently with his people, a point also just promised (39:27). Thus, in his final encounter with the Lord, Ezekiel sees the dawn of a new day, a new spiritual center (chs. 40–43), along with a renewed system of worship (chs. 44–48). Ezekiel 40–48 has three phrases that all work together to create sacred space.

40:1–43:27 First phase of the new spiritual center: Holiness attained and a means to maintain it. The tour guide gives Ezekiel a mountain-top view of the land (40:1–4). From the vantage point of the south, he sees a worship complex with a beautiful and symmetrical temple (40:5–42:20) complete with the arrival of the King of Glory to a permanent dwelling (43:1–10). The permanent nature of his dwelling pertains to the removal of the people’s defilement. Holiness has been attained. The altar provides the means of maintaining that holiness (43:13–27). Based on their previous history and experience under the Mosaic and Davidic administrations, the exiles would fully understand what Ezekiel describes to them. What would pique their interest, however, pertains to God’s permanent presence and the assurance of no more defilements. The first phase describes attaining holiness due to God’s presence and the sanctifying work of his people, something maintained through sacrifices (40:1–43:27). God is king and sovereign. He takes his seat in the midst of his people forever because they are no longer able to defile his holy name. Together the temple, altar, and outer court provide holy space for the relationship to unfold.

40:1–4 A mountain-top view: The context for holiness. This vision comes a quarter of a century into their exile and approximately fourteen years after the city’s fall in 586 BC (thus April 28, 573 BC) (40:1). The significant passing of time shows the longevity of sin’s consequences in a very tangible way. The number of years encourages the reader to consider the demeanor of the people deep into their exile. What unfolds for Ezekiel is supernatural in light of the context of the fallen city. Through visions (40:2–3) he is brought to the land of Israel (see also 1:1; 8:3). God demands a special alertness on the part of Ezekiel. He must be “all in,” as it were—his eyes, ears, and heart—due to his responsibility to communicate to the exiles (40:4). His specific placement in the land “on a very high mountain” elicits one’s attention. The nameless mountain deliberately draws attention to the mountain’s visibility. Ezekiel’s position on this mountain recalls the fruitfulness of the “tender sprig” God promises to plant on a “high and lofty mountain” (17:22–23). It recalls God’s promise that “on my holy mountain, the mountain height of Israel,” his people will serve him by offering holy and acceptable sacrifices to their God (20:40–44). The mountain refers to Mount Zion, the highest of the mountains and the earthly seat of God’s reign (Isa 2:2; Mic 4:1; Zech 14:10). 

In fact, this topographical orientation unites the material in Ezekiel 34–48 and invites one to see a full-scale restoration. It begins with a compassionate shepherd (ch. 34) and ends with a victorious king (ch. 48).⁵² It starts in the “mountains of Israel” and ends on an elevated peak in the “land of Israel.” Since the topography of Palestine is dominated by a ridge of mountains running north to south, the use of “mountains of Israel” (unique to Ezekiel) seems to suggest the extent of the restoration. The entire system of worship that develops in the context of the mountains of Israel and culminates on Mount Zion points to the eschatological future (34:25–31; 36:22–38; 37:23–38). The extent and visibility of the Lord’s restorative and sanctifying work on behalf of his people offers a testimony of his character to the nations (following Zhang, 118). It points one forward to the large-scale and supernatural transformation found in the gospel. It begins with Christ’s restorative work on Mount Calvary and ends on Mount Zion, a holy mountain, which are one and the same mountain (Gen 22; 2Sam 25). The heavenly attendant in John’s vision brings him to “a mountain great and high,” and then he is shown more details about the Holy City, Jerusalem (Rev 21:10). The author of Hebrews says we have come to Mt. Zion, the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem (Heb 12:22), the chief mountain where God reigns and dwells. A place where people come in droves (Ps 68:16; Isa 2:1–5). A place where he plants his people, and they find joy, refuge, and peace (Exod 15:17). Ezekiel’s position “on a very high mountain” not only emphasizes the visibility of God’s restorative work but also the magnitude of it. Ezekiel 40–48 demonstrates this fact in a profound way. 

From this vantage point Ezekiel observes two things. First, he perceives what appears to be a city-like complex. Given Jerusalem’s fall fourteen years prior, this might strike a note of hope for the exiles. Hope, however, is a byproduct of something else God wishes to accomplish (43:10–12). Second, he encounters an angelic guide similar to the one in his second vision (chs. 8–11; see also Dan 10:6; Rev 1:15). The guide carries standard measuring tools, not for construction, but for the purpose of establishing boundaries (internal and external) of the sacred space (see 9:2). In what follows, the man shows Ezekiel the physical boundaries of the structure. The architecture associated with the temple area, and the temple itself, come into focus (40:5–42:20). 

40:5–42:20 What he sees: The architecture of holiness. A guide takes Ezekiel on another temple tour that differs drastically from the previous one (chs. 8–11). Instead of witnessing all the abominations that drove the Lord from his earthly shrine (cf. 8:1–18), he sees a holy space and place for worship. Of note is the perimeter of the entire sanctuary at the east gate (42:15–20). In terms of shape, he sees a perfect square (42:15–20). This tour brings more clarity to what Ezekiel meant when he said he saw buildings that looked like a city (40:2). In terms of size, the architecture of this sanctuary (750 ft. x 750 ft.)⁵³ far exceeds Solomon’s temple (180 ft. x 90 ft.; 50 ft. high). This suggests enormous territorial expansion of the holy space. Ezekiel’s description focuses on size and clearly marked boundaries rather than the beauty of any physical features. This is so because what beautifies the structure is the radiance of God’s glory. The heart of what he sees is Israel’s God appearing once again in the temple (43:1–5)! 

43:1–9 Who he sees: The arrival of the King of Glory to his holy dwelling. The climactic point pertains to the fact that Ezekiel sees the arrival of the King of Glory. As it was with Solomon’s temple and the tabernacle previously, the “glory of the God of Israel” appears. The God who approaches is “the God of Israel.” This important designation reflects that he comes to reclaim ownership of his people, land, and temple (see 8:1–4). From Ezekiel’s vantage point, the glory comes from the east (43:1–2), the direction it left Solomon’s temple in the vision of abandonment (10:19; 11:23). His approach was loud (see 1:24; Rev 1:15; 14:2; 19:6) and even more luminous than Ezekiel experienced before (43:2). His radiance lights up the entire land—”the earth shone with his glory”—and is reminiscent of Isaiah’s experience (Isa 6:4; cf. Isa 10:4; Luke 2:9; Rev 21:11, 23). Ezekiel compares this moment to previous encounters with the supernatural (Ezek 1:1–3:27) and responds in similar fashion (43:3; cf. 1:28). He becomes an eyewitness as the attendant takes him to the inner court to see the glory (43:5). God’s radiance not only fills the land, but it also occupies this architectural structure and gives meaning to it as had been done in the past (Exod 40:34; 1Kgs 8:10–11; cf. Isa 6:4). In what follows, God explains the impact of this moment.

God speaks directly to the prophet and explains the significance of what he witnesses (43:6–9). The temple represents God’s palace (43:7), what Isaiah refers to as “the mountain of the house of the Lord” (Isa 2:1–3). God reclaims his seat of kingship (see 1Sam 4:4; Ps 47:8), articulated with the statement indicating possession, “this is the place of my throne and the place of the soles of my feet . . .” God owns this place; it represents his dominion and rule (see 1Chr 28:2; Pss 99:5; 132:7; Isa 60:13 and note; Lam 2:1). The space belongs to King Yahweh, where he will live and reign forever in an undefiled, unhindered, unmediated relationship with his people. The longevity of his dominion is clearly stated: “I will live among the Israelites forever” (Ezek 43:7). God is reclaiming his eternal seat of sovereignty (43:9), which fulfills the conditions of the covenant of peace (37:26–28; 1Kgs 6:13; Zech 2:11). Although he sat among them in earthly abodes prior (tabernacle and temple), a different situation now exists. The reason for his permanent place with his people pertains to the new condition of his people. God’s people (laity and non-laity) will never again defile his holy name (cf. 2Kgs 21:18, 26; 23:30; Ezek 5:11; 18:10–12; and esp. 22:1–15). Unholiness is no longer a problem; therefore, God’s presence will remain. Thus, Ezekiel sees the sovereign king coming to rule a righteous people. God does not come in his glory as an enemy from the north to judge (see 1:1–28). He comes as king who has justly judged by opposing all opposition to his reign. This reminds of Isaiah’s everlasting kingship: “He will reign on David’s throne and over his kingdom . . . forever” (Isa 9:7). The kingship Ezekiel describes recalls David’s declaration in Psalm 24 when the King of Glory makes his grand entrance through the ancient gates (43:8–10). This part of Ezekiel’s vision points to God’s reign in the Book of Revelation. John sees a throne in heaven with one seated on it (Rev 4:1–11). The Lamb at the center of the throne will be the shepherd-king (Rev 7:17). God’s possession of the Holy City and his rulership will be eternal (Rev 21:5; 19:6). He reigns as king once he has justly judged Babylon the Great (Rev 18:1–19:8). His glory lights up the new heavens and earth and provides constant illumination from his seat of sovereignty over all (Rev 21:11, 23). The arrival of the King of Glory in his holy dwelling demands a response.

43:10–12⁵⁴ This law of the holy temple: Ezekiel as Law-giver. After the arrival of the King of Glory, God asks Ezekiel to inform the house of Israel as to its relevance for them. Through the “law of the temple,” Ezekiel instructs the people. As Moses established the Law on Mt. Sinai, God wants Ezekiel to establish the law of the temple on Zion, Sinai’s replacement. The law of the temple pertains to maintaining holiness. It represents perfection. Ezekiel must not only report on what he sees, but he is also commanded to write it down in their sight. This will enable scrutiny of all of God’s rulings and ordinances by executing or studying them (following Block, 589). The law as the focal point pictures a development Isaiah promised, that God’s law would go forth from Zion (Isa 2:3). Reminiscent of Moses who wrote down the holiness code (Exod 24:4), God asks Ezekiel to write down the law of the temple. Through both the oral and written component required of Ezekiel in transmitting the content of the vision, God intends to generate a response from the exiles. 

There is no indication of a requirement to build this temple as a response. God does not wish for the exiles even to have hope or joy as they learn about the law of the temple. Rather, God wants shame for their sin and all they have done wrong fourteen years after the city fell and twenty-five years into exile. He wants them to feel a deep disappointment for their lack of holiness, for desecrating his holy name due to their failings. Their shame would demonstrate “a positive gap between Jerusalem’s previous self-righteousness and the reality of their true state before him. For Ezekiel, this humble acknowledgment of their utter need for him lays the necessary foundation for proper recognition of and relationship to Yahweh. It is needed for sinful people to ‘know that I am Yahweh’” (Wu, 130). God’s stated purpose suggests the root of the problem remains the heart, even after having years and years to contemplate and change. The gracious and undeserved restoration mapped out in the “law of the temple” attempts to melt their hearts, cause them to accept their guilt, and be moved to a new place of acknowledging guilt. His kindness should lead them to a true heart transformation and conviction of sin. Such a conviction could prevent them from repeating the sins of the past (cf. Ezra 10). Thus, Ezekiel’s generation does not receive a blueprint to build a temple, but a plan to keep them pure. His people will never again defile his holy name (Ezek 43:7), and the law of the temple enables this. It prepares for God’s restoration work in the New Covenant (the Covenant of Peace in Ezek 34:25–26; 37:26; Isa 54:10; cf. Jer 31; Heb 8; 10). When God builds the temple of his church corporately and individually (Eph 2:21), he fills us with his spirit (Eph 4:30), and believers’ bodies become temples of the Holy Spirit (1Cor 6:19). God writes his law on our hearts. The plan for purity is in place. His presence in our lives is his permanent seat of authority. Because of the Spirit’s work in our daily lives, ongoing restoration and sanctification take place. 

43:13–27 The means of maintaining holiness: Sacrifice. The plan to keep them pure unfolds more specifically with the description of the new altar. This altar ensures a God-given means for unbroken fellowship with him through the shedding of blood (43:13–27). First mentioned in 40:47 and described in detail here, this altar emphasizes the importance of performing sacrifices in the new temple. It is square with stone projections at each corner that would contain the wood and meat when cooked (Exod 29:12; Ps 118:27). The altar had to be consecrated to God before it could be used (Ezek 43:18). This required cleansing with animal blood (See Exod 29:16; Lev 4:6; 5:9). Before usage it had to be purified for a week (Ezek 43:26). Only after this would the people’s offerings be accepted by God. All is in place for people to approach God through sacrifice on this altar. Their offerings would ensure communion and peace with a holy God abiding in their midst. The new altar and the sacrifices made on it ensure God provides a way for people to become holy. This represents a Levitical vision of the fulfillment of holiness—maintaining holiness through a renewed sacrificial system. While God uses what is familiar to them at that time, this points to a future system of worship that goes well beyond Ezekiel’s audience. The New Covenant overrides the old system with one sacrifice that makes us holy in perpetuity. Christ’s blood sacrifice is God’s provision for our holiness (Heb 9:11–14; 10:12–14). Cleansing from sin through sacrifice (burnt offering) produces fellowship (peace offering) with God. Thus, the context for holiness and architecture of holiness, the arrival of the King of Glory in his holy dwelling, the giving of the holy law of the temple, and the sacrifices complete the first phase of the renewal of worship. Two more phases mark the restoration in what follows.

44:1–4 Second phase of new spiritual center: A holy priesthood and prince to guard and instruct on holiness. Now that God has taken up permanent residence (43:6–7), a point emphasized by the closed gate, access to the sacred space by the proper personnel merits concern (44:1–4). The second phase entails maintenance of holiness by excluding unfit ministers (44:5–14) but including ministers fit to guard and instruct on holiness. The Zadokite priests (44:15–31) and the prince (45:1–46:24) work in tandem to ensure proper worship. 

44:5–14 Exclusion of some Levites. More requirements unfold relative to the law of the temple. As he did previously (40:4), God again prompts Ezekiel to pay attention regarding specific instructions related to opportunities for temple services (44:5–6). He specifically excludes the Levites, who descend from Aaron, from serving God with the holy and most holy things. They may serve but in a restricted capacity as gatekeepers and temple attendants only (44:10–14). This represents a demotion compared to their role in the past. Their abuses of the past brought defilements into the worship space. They did not make purity a priority. They did not steward well the holy things of God. They gave foreigners access to God’s house and shrugged their responsibilities (44:7–9). For this reason, they have a different role and must bear the consequences of the demotion (44:10, 12, 13). They cannot be trusted to keep out the unholy in this holy place. 

44:15–31 Inclusion of sons of Zadok. However, God appoints special status to the Zadokites (also Levites) due to their faithfulness in the past. They bear the heaviest load of ministerial responsibilities. The ministry of serving at the altar and in the sanctuary, nearest to God, was to be carried out by the Zadokite priests. Zadok was a priest of prominence during David’s reign (2Sam 20:25). Later he supported Solomon, not Adonijah. In so doing he secured for himself and his descendants the honor of serving in the Jerusalem temple (see 1Kgs 1). For this reason, the Zadokites receive special consideration. This exclusivity is based on God’s holy character and the concern to maintain this uncompromising standard (Ezek 44:16). By maintaining a high standard of holiness relative to wardrobe (44:17–20), the Zadokite priests would model to God’s people that a radical distinction exists between everyday things and the things of God (44:20–27). By serving God, he meets their needs (44:28–31; see also Num 18:20, 23–24; Deut 10:9; Josh 13:14, 33; 18:7). Due to the sacrifices offered by the priests, God assures unbroken fellowship and holiness. He assures that illegitimate temple ministers are a thing of the past and will not be tolerated in this new holy space. Yet, as in times past, the rules for the priests in this new system of worship teach Israel how to maintain their holiness before a holy God. The leadership described points to Jesus’s leadership in the worship of the living God through the New Covenant. Hebrews reminds that “such a high priest truly meets our needs – one who is holy, blameless,” who serves in the sanctuary, the true tabernacle set up by the Lord, not by a mere human being” (Heb 7:26–8:2). The law of the temple pertains to proper instruction given by the Zadokite priests. It also entails regulations regarding the prince, a minister who works alongside the priests.

45:1–46:24 The prince: A special minister to administer holiness. The ministry of the prince takes center stage in this section. His land allotment (45:1–8) and key role of ruling with justice, kindness, and shepherding rightly contrasts previous leadership. As with the Levites, Israel’s princes did not maintain standards of justice, a mockery to God’s holiness (45:8–9). The new prince will set the example socially. Religiously, he retains a mission-critical role. He serves God and offers sacrifices on behalf of himself and the people under the supervision of the Zadokites. His leadership in these areas and with the cult in general will allow God’s people to maintain holiness and worship properly. Key leadership is in place to administer worship in this holy space. The prince serves God alongside the priests, and guarding and instructing in holiness becomes a reality.

The reference to “prince,” or nasi in Hebrew, represents a tribal rulership designation (cf. Num 7:72, 78; 10:4; Josh 22:30). It recalls two previous restoration texts that speak of the righteous leadership that God will raise up to carry out the terms of the covenant of peace (Ezek 34:24; 37:25). The prince is designated there as David, God’s servant, the new ruler of the nation (also called king), whose leadership transforms things at the social level. Since the vision in Ezekiel 40–48 shows some of the outworkings of the covenant of peace, the prince and his duties are likely an extension, fleshing out his responsibilities as main cultic leader related to the sacrificial system. On this point Zhang rightly notes the genre shift (Zhang, 241–248) between Ezekiel 34–37 and 40–48. As a vision filled with prophetic symbolism, this would account for the description of spiritual realities in concrete terms of a temple, altar, sacrifices, a nasi, and the land (Zhang, 241–248). The prince, a reference to the messianic-like ruler in this new holy space, along with the Zadokite priests will transform things from the perspective of worship. Holiness and fruitfulness characterize his leadership. This priest-prince-king imagery finds fulfillment in Christ’s life. Isaiah’s suffering servant lauds the sufficiency of Jesus’s sacrifice (Isa 53:1–11). His sacrificial work served God, and so he “sat down at the right hand of God in majesty” (Heb 1:3; 8:1; 10:12–14). The Gospels articulate this reality at the beginning (Matt 2:2) and end of Jesus’s life: “This is the king of the Jews” (Matt 27:37; Mark 15:26; Luke 23:38; John 19:19). Thus, the second phase of this new spiritual center is complete. In what follows the third and final phase unfolds.

47:1–48:35 Third phrase of new spiritual center: Permanent holiness of the land; A supernatural provision. With the appointment of the priests and the prince, ministers fit to guard and give access to the things of God (44:1–46:24), Ezekiel witnesses the last stage of God’s restorative work. The focus of the third phase pertains to the land. First, God guarantees the land’s fruitfulness (47:1–12). Second, God redistributes the Promised Land according to tribal territorial inheritances (47:13–48:34). Thus, by the end of the entire vision, God confirms that Ezekiel has indeed seen a city (40:2): “The name of the city from that time on shall be, THE LORD IS THERE” (48:35)! 

47:1–6 A supernatural water source. Ezekiel returns to the front of the sanctuary. He sees water whose source originates from the divine presence (Ps 46:4; Gen 2:10–14). Moreover, the water has a surprising increase in its depth, from a trickle in 47:2 to a river depth suitable for swimming (47:5) as it flows out to the sea (47:8). The “trickling” indicates a small amount of water initially (47:1–2). The water source grew from a stream into an unpassable river (47:3–6). A river typically symbolizes abundance (see Ps 65:9; Isa 33:20; Joel 3:18; Zech 14:8; Rev 22:1–2). It also symbolizes fruitfulness, as indicated in what follows.

47:7–12 A supernatural fruitfulness in the Holy Land. Given its divine source, this river provides life, that is, the means by which life comes out of death with respect to the land. Trees on the riverbanks provide evidence of this (47:7; cf. Ps 1), as does the water’s movement that he describes. The water’s movement “empties into the sea,” indicating its capacity not only to bring life but also to bring it to places devoid of life, to the salty waters of the Dead Sea (see ESV text note). The Dead Sea is known as the lowest and saltiest body of water in the world, incapable of sustaining life due to heavy salt and mineral content (47:8). This reflects a vivid picture of life coming out of death, as salty water becomes fresh. Similar to the language used to describe fruitfulness of creation in Genesis, one finds “every living creature that swarms” has a home here. Fishermen are overwhelmed due to a thriving industry on a stretch of land west to east on the shores of the Dead Sea, “Engedi to Eneglaim.” This offers another picture of abundance (47:9–10). Although the salty water become fresh (47:8), God graciously leaves some salt (47:11), perhaps for food preparation purposes with sacrifices (43:24). The monthly fruit of the fruit trees reflects a regularity to the bounty and a cleansing flow because of its derivation from the sanctuary (47:12). 

This living water promises abundance of life, a supernatural fruitfulness, and a sustainability in the land (nutritionally and medicinally) for its inhabitants (see Pss 36:8; 46:4; see also Joel 3:18; Zech 13:1; 14:8; John 7; Rev 22:1–2). The land that was once desolate becomes lush like the Garden of Eden (36:35), as the terms of the covenant of peace suggest. The use of Eden-like language recalls idyllic conditions. The land also reflects a supernatural provision for maintenance of holiness in the land due to the divine water source. Its ongoing cleansing flow (Titus 3:5) ensures that the land graciously given by a God who relentlessly pursues people for a relationship is, at long last, the “Holy Land” flowing with fruit for a holy people in the company of a holy God (ZHANG, 241–248). 

The abundance and fruitfulness expressed here represents another extension of the promises pertaining to the covenant of peace (34:27; 36:30; see Amos 9:13). Thus, the supernatural origin, growth, and stunning effects of this “river of life” come from a holy source and maintain the holiness of the land. Ezekiel’s audience would fully understand fruitfulness in relationship to their understanding of both the Mosaic and Abrahamic covenants. Yet this source of abundant life anticipates the promise of fruitfulness in the New Covenant. Jesus becomes a believer’s source of abundant life (John 4; 7:38) who through the water of regeneration provides supernaturally for us (Titus 3:5) and enables unending fruit by abiding in him (John 15:1–8). In fact, the supernatural water source, “the river of the water of life,” that flows from God’s throne in the New Jerusalem fulfills Ezekiel’s vision, which symbolizes the fruitful life of abundance one has in God’s presence (Rev 22:1–2).

47:13–48:29 The promised inheritance for a holy people. In the final section, God communicates his desires about apportioning the cleansed and fruitful land appropriately in the new holy space. God redistributes the Promised Land according to tribal territorial inheritances. However, unlike the original distribution of the land (Josh 12ff), which had very specific boundaries with an abundance of place-names, the distribution here is overtly symbolic. One observes this in the realities that: the land is divided into twelve equal portions (47:13–14; 48:1–8, 23–28); the Transjordanian tribes now receive their lot within the boundaries of the Promised Land (48:6, 27); foreigners are considered native-born Israelites who inherit land (47:21–23); Judah holds the most prestigious place (48:8); the land set apart for the temple complex equals a sacred square (48:9–12); and the city is square-shaped city and receives an endless flow of traffic from the twelve tribes (48:15–29). These all indicate a new norm through the literary means of symmetry. 

As a unified nation (37:15–28), God promised to place them back in their own land under the terms of the covenant of peace. The land’s division into twelve equal portions suggests a unity unparalleled in the past. Living in the land is God’s promise that he “swore with uplifted hand” in the covenant with Abram (Gen 15:9–21; Ezek 20:5). The land was their inheritance, so the connection with their ancestors reaffirms God’s unending relational loyalties to his people now unfolding in the terms of the covenant of peace (Ezek 36:28). Foreigners are to be considered as native-born Israelites (47:22–23). This represents an amazing statement of inclusion of the nations (cf. Isa 2) as they are given rights associated with the Abrahamic blessings (Gal 3:9, 14, 26–29; 4:28–31). This provision for foreigners expresses God’s loyalties to those who become his people. Judah has the most prestigious place, as it borders the central territories that contained the sanctuary (Ezek 48:8). This is so because the Messiah was promised to come from the tribe of Judah (see Gen 35:23; 49:8–12; 49:10). Here the city is given prominence (Ezek 48:15). Like the nameless mountain mentioned earlier (40:2), the description emphasizes a nameless “city” (48:15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21) attached to Levite territory (48:15–19) that has a flow of traffic from each of the twelve tribes, giving it prominence in the land. The name of the city, however, is not revealed until the final section of the chapter, in the last verse of the book (48:35). The sanctity of land and space, together with the principles and order of the land’s allocations, all point to its permanent restoration.

48:30–35 The Holy Land and holy people with a holy God: Accessibility forever. The universal, even personal access to the city along with the unfolding of its name brings the vision and book to a climactic end. The gates of the city named after the tribes of Israel provide access to the city. There are twelve gates associated with the twelve tribes, now forever united. The gates are named after Jacob’s original sons and not the tribal territories. As a result, Levi’s name appears in the list when one does not expect it (the Levites were not granted tribal allotments; cf. Num 1:49; Deut 10:9; Josh 13:14).⁵⁵ Likewise, Joseph’s name appears instead of Ephraim and Manasseh (see Ezek 48:4–5). This maintains the number twelve and may emphasize the city’s accessibility to all (cf. Rev 21:12–14). The NT writers make great use of its symbolism (Matt 19:28; Mark 4:4; Jas 1:1; Rev 7:1–8). Thus, Ezekiel’s audience would be reminded of God’s character. He will fulfill his promises of redemption. 

The new spiritual center is a city—“the name of the city from that time on shall be, THE LORD IS THERE” (48:35). By the end of the vision, Ezekiel is now able to make a clear identification of what he sees and initially identified as “a structure like a city” (40:2). Moreover, this city has a name pregnant with significance. The Hebrew is Yahweh Shammah and means “The Lord is there” or “Yahweh is there.” The name of the city suggests ongoing exaltation of Yahweh, for indeed, the “designer and builder is God” (Heb 11:10). The name of the city suggests an ongoing revelation of God’s true character. His holy name was desecrated due to their sin; now his holy name is restored. The city that endured siege, fall, and ridicule finds restoration. The rebellious people who defiled themselves, the land, the city, the temple, God’s name, and God by all their abominations are made holy and can maintain holiness. Defilement that brought death is replaced with purity and sanctity and life. Holiness in the land, faithful leadership, and the Lord’s living space prevails. The city, temple, people, and land that experienced divine abandonment experience the eternal presence of their God (so too Zhang).

The reality of God’s permanent presence in Israel’s midst is the ultimate covenantal blessing. Ezekiel’s audience would be reminded of God’s gracious and merciful character; God’s blessing awaits them. Without the divine presence the city, people, and temple were destroyed (chs. 8–11). There was no hope for the people of God. One finds no hope for holiness nor conviction of sin without the presence of God. With the divine presence the city, people, and temple are restored (chs. 40–48); there is hope again for God’s people. Their hope is not in something perishable such as a temple, land, or city but in a person, in God himself, one who is imperishable! The name of the city reflects the fullness of the restoration due to the divine presence. This city represents an all-encompassing worship system. The city complex is God himself, not a structure made with human hands. It points to the fact that we “have come to Mount Zion, to the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem . . . and to Jesus” (Heb 12:22–24). Restoration is complete (cf. Rev 21:9–27). From Genesis to Revelation, from Eden to eternity, from the beginning of time to the end of time, the promise of the divine presence thematically unites the Bible. Without Ezekiel 40–48 the restoration that commences in chapters 34–39 would be neither complete nor possible.

We can only imagine the impact that this vision of an unhindered, undefiled, unmediated, and permanent relationship between God and his people had on the exiles. The large-scale nature of the “temple-city” complex would have spoken volumes about the magnitude of the restoration envisioned. Were they ashamed of their sin considering God’s glorious restoration communicated by Ezekiel? Did they experience an inward transformation after hearing such an amazing report? This incredible vision should have brought them to a place of humility and honest acknowledgement of who they were in light of his grace. The tension of the now and not yet would have been very real for his audience. The now of the vision would pertain to Ezekiel’s immediate report of it to the exiles. The not yet that he speaks of would be hard for them to comprehend. In fact, it would take thirty-four more years before the exiles would return home and an additional twenty-three years after they returned before they rebuilt the temple (Ezra 6:13–18). Judging from some of the exiles’ behavior when allowed to return to the land from Babylon in 539 BC during the time of Zerubbabel, it does appear the people are on stronger footing (Ezra 1–3). The first wave of returnees did things by the book (Ezra 1–6). There does appear to be a measure of the fear of God in them, as the early chapters of Ezra indicate. They overcame opposition and obstacles to worship as they commenced with the rebuilding process.

However, neither holiness nor the abiding presence of God characterizes the experience of those mentioned in Ezra 1–6. The people remain at the mercy of the Persian kings and are surrounded by non-Israelites—“we are slaves to this day” (Ezra 9:9; Neh 9:36). It seems the divine glory does not reappear in the rebuilt temple at its dedication (Ezra 6:16–18). Moreover, by Ezra’s time when the second wave of God’s people returned to the land, some of the leadership were living ungodly lifestyles (Ezra 9–10). Ezra, the minister in residence at the time, feared another exile due to the guilt of the people (Ezra 9:14). By Nehemiah’s time, when the third wave of God’s people returned, the rebuilt city was vulnerable and unprotected, not to mention populated with people living unholy in the “polluted” land. Essentially, a defiled system remained, and violation of the sanctity of the space did not change (Neh 13). The conditions found in Ezekiel’s vision are not met at that time. Accordingly, looking merely for a rebuilt temple in the future diminishes the bigger picture of restoration and the necessary components to it that unfold in the vision.

Ezekiel’s vision points beyond Ezra’s time to a third temple where a people, place, and presence are perfected for all time. Ezekiel’s vision of a permanent relationship between God and his people finds fulfillment in Jesus. As the temple (John 1:14; 2:19–22), Jesus was a physical manifestation of God’s salvific work. Through him we achieve salvation. As a sacrifice for all time, Jesus was God’s High Priest through whom he accomplished his sanctifying work (Heb 9–10). Through him we achieve holiness. Accordingly, although perfected (a past completed action), we are being made holy (Heb 10:14). As the temple of the living God, the church maintains holiness through the Spirit and the permanent nature of this reality in our lives with the law written on our hearts. Because of Jesus’s faithful leadership as shepherd-king and priest, God’s people can obey his Word and maintain a standard of holiness they could not achieve on their own merit. Yet Paul vividly reminds of the now and not yet in this area too. The struggle with obedience to the law and holiness continues until we shed this body of death (Rom 7). But we are not without a helper, the Holy Spirit who helps us in our weaknesses, so we are more than conquerors (Rom 8). Ezekiel’s vision points to a territorial expansion and population explosion realized in Christ.

Ultimate fulfillment of Ezekiel’s vision of an unhindered, undefiled, unmediated, and permanent relationship between God and his people still awaits the church. For Christ followers, we too have been given a vision of restoration in the second coming announced by the NT writers. They speak about the idealized and future realities that await us in the new heavens and earth and have recorded it for us. The NT shows the tension between the now and not yet. The not yet they speak of concerning believers seems hard to embrace. Paul assures us we are now seated in heavenly places (Eph 2:6), and yet Peter says our inheritance is imperishable, undefiled, and unfading, kept in heaven (1Pet 1:4). The author of Hebrews says we have come to Mt. Zion, the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem (Heb 12:22). But John’s vision in Revelation reminds of the not yet of this reality when he sees the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God (Rev 21:2). In fact, John’s vision in Revelation fulfills the prophetic symbolism of Ezekiel’s vison. The heavenly guide brings John to “a mountain great and high,” and he is shown more details about the Holy City, Jerusalem (Rev 21:10). The angel shows John the boundaries of the sacred space with its walls, gates, and foundations. He notices that the city’s layout corresponded to a square (Rev 21:15–21) and lacks a temple. This was so because the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb are its temple (Rev 21:22). Moreover, those who dwell there are clean and pure, as evidenced by their attire of white robes (Rev 7:14; 19:8; 21:2). Nothing impure will ever enter it (Rev 21:27). These conditions remain permanent due to the ongoing flow of the river of the water of life running through the city center (Rev 22:1–2). The tabernacle of God is with humankind because the former things have passed away (Rev 21:3). We await this future where he makes all things new, when we will see his face, his name will be on our foreheads, and we will reign forever and ever (Rev 22:4)! To look merely for a physical rebuilt temple in the future likewise diminishes the bigger picture of restoration that develops in the larger literary slice of Ezekiel (chs. 34–39) to which Ezekiel 40–48 connects. Ezekiel’s vision points to a territorial expansion and population explosion at the consummation. We too will join the heavenly anthem and proclaim, “Holy, holy, holy, the whole earth is full of your glory!” (Isa 6:3; Rev 7:10–12; cf. Phil 2:9–11; Rom 14:10–11).

Allen, Leslie. C. Ezekiel 1–19. WBC 28. Dallas: Word, 1994.

———. Ezekiel 20–48. WBC 29. Dallas: Word, 1990.

Block, Daniel Isaac. The Book of Ezekiel: Chapters 1–24. NICOT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997.

———. The Book of Ezekiel: Chapters 25–48. NICOT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.

Duguid, Iain M. Ezekiel: NIVAC: Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 1999.

Horton, M. The Christian Faith: A Systematic Theology for Pilgrims on the Way. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2011.

Petter, Donna. The Book of Ezekiel and Mesopotamian City Laments. (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis) Bd. 246. Fribourg: Academic Press; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2011.

Schnittjer, David G. Old Testament Use of the Old Testament: A Book-by-Book Guide. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2021.

Wu, Daniel Y. Honor, Shame, and Guilt: Social-Scientific Approaches to the Book of Ezekiel. Bulletin for Biblical Research Supplement 14. Warsaw: Eisenbrauns, 2016. 

Zhang, Xiubin. Discourse Analysis of Ezekiel 40-48: Keeping God’s Holiness. Ann Arbor: ProQuest, 2018.

1. See commentary for details.

2. See commentary for details.

3. The Babylonians had already displaced one wave of Israelites from the Promised Land to Babylon (606 BC). See 2Kgs 24:1–7; Dan 1:1.

4. Ezek 11:8; 21:6–7, 12; 24:18.

5. At least the Psalmist shows that while in Babylon some of the exiles did weep as they remembered their homeland, but not necessarily for sin. God’s people experienced remorse over sin based on what we know from the Book of Lamentations. But this sentiment comes after the city fell (Ps 137). 

6. Although she offers a different interpretation of the event, credit goes to Margaret Odell for the use of this well-known phrase relative to Ezekiel 2:8–9. See “You are what you eat: Ezekiel and the Scroll Incident.” JBL Jan 1, 1998.

7. See commentary. Also D. Petter, The Book of Ezekiel and Mesopotamian City Laments. OBO 246 (Fribourg: Academic Press, 2011).

8. In fact, mourning after the news of the fall would not be appropriate. For further explanation See D. Petter, The Book of Ezekiel and Mesopotamian City Laments, pp. 69–73.

9. There are approximately 80 references in Ezekiel where Yahweh charges Israel with idolatry (See Kutsko, 29).

10. This dominant biblical–theological theme of knowing the Lord through judgment first surfaces in Exodus (see Exod 5:2; 6:3; 7:5; 14:4; 16:6; 18:11; 20:19; 33:12–13).

11. Ezekiel’s prophetic call came in July, 593 BC. His last dated message arrived on April, 571 (see 29:17). He spent seven years speaking of Jerusalem’s final demise (586 BC) and fourteen years addressing its restoration. The date of his call is one of thirteen dates specified in the book. Twelve dates specify times when he receives a message from God. One date concerns the arrival of the messenger who reported Jerusalem’s fall (33:21). The autobiographical style suggests Ezekiel wrote the book bearing his name, a name which in Hebrew means, “may God strengthen” or “God strengthens,” no coincidence given his hard task. He is not to be confused with another Ezekiel who lived in an earlier generation (1Chr 24:16). 

12. Indeed, elsewhere we know that all of creation reveals God’s glory (Isa 6:3b). God’s glory refers to his preeminence and importance over all things as creator and redeemer. It also refers to a dramatic manifestation and revelation of the divine presence that reveals his character.

13. NIV “vault” or “firmament” based on Gen 1:6–8. The Hebrew term is better translated as platform (Exod 24:10).

14. Indeed, Jesus’s use of the term for himself indicates he provides fulfillment of this eschatological figure to which Daniel referred (Matt 8:20; 9:6; 11:19).

15. NIV has “people of Israel” and “people of Judah” rather than “house of.” This confuses the matter for two reasons. First, by using “people” and not “house,” the patrimonial, more familial, and personal connection gets lost. Second, the use of the “Israel” designation does not refer to the Northern Kingdom. Nor does the use of the Judah designation refer to the Southern Kingdom. Based on usage in the passage and elsewhere in the book, the terms are used interchangeably for the whole nation (Block, 174–76).

16. Often, these places of worship were at raised elevations. Some high places are associated with the Lord, others with foreign deities. Consistent activities at both included sacrificing and burning incense. Objects typically associated with these sanctuaries were “altars” used for cooking animal meat. In addition, worshippers utilized “incense altars” made of clay that stood two feet tall. Sweet smelling fragrances burned on these small stands. Yahweh’s high places vary in size and location. They were legitimate before Solomon’s temple (1Sam 9:1–10:16; 1Kgs 3:1–4) but not afterwards (1Kgs 15:14; 22:43; 2Kgs 12:4; 14:4; 15:4, 35). 

17. See NIV footnote where the LXX uses Riblah for Diblah. This references Hamath, the northern border of Israel (Ezek 47:17). 

18. A contrast with other Israelite women who functioned as true prophetesses of God (cf. Exod 15:20; Judg 4:4; 2Kgs 22:14; Isa 8:3; Neh 6:14). 

19. Noah, Daniel, and Job are well-known individuals from the past who found favor with God in the midst of adversity (Gen 6:9; Job 1:1). The Daniel here (cf. also Ezek 28:3) could be the prophet Daniel and author of the book bearing his name. The name (spelled slightly different) could also reference an ancient sage of the Syrian region known from extra-biblical texts found at Ugarit. God spared these individuals from the full end of hardship because of his favor. Although God spared Lot due to Abraham’s prayer (Gen 18:20–23), this is not possible now for Jerusalem because her “end” has been decreed (see notes on ch. 7).

20.For this reason, Jesus proclaims that his audience appears worse than Sodom and Gomorrah for their rejection of his ministry (Matt 10:11–15; 20–24). In addition, for killing God’s messengers, Revelation designates Jerusalem as Sodom (Rev 11:8). A future day of judgment awaits those who show resistance to God as exemplified by Sodom and Gomorrah (Matt 10:15; Luke 17:28–36; 2Pet 2:7–11). 

21. The mountains of Lebanon give it glory and prestige (Isa 35:2; 60:13). It represents the standard of earthly glory and is known for its cedars (Song 5:15).

22. The truth that God desires life not death gets proven in the way Ezekiel’s prophecy ends (Ezek 34–48).

23. This anticipates life that comes through Christ’s perfect righteousness (Rom 3:23–26; 6:23). 

24. So too “You Israelites” (18:30), “Yet the Israelites” (18:29), “people of Israel” (18:29), “people of Israel” (18:31). 

25. The exhortation to get a new heart provides a contrasts with later expressions of it in 11:19 and 36:26, where acquiring a new heart and spirit comes as a gift from God (18:31). The latter takes place because the heart of the problem is their rebellion hearts; they simply do not possess the ability to “get a new heart.” Here the exhortation pertains to what they can do at present that will benefit them.

26. The removal of the royal scepter as a consequence for sin is only temporary (Ezek 34; Gen 49:10). Out of death life will come.

27. The mention of God giving Sabbath laws (20:12, 20) is representative of his “decrees and ordinances” as a whole (following Schnittjer, 324). 

28. The holy and high mountain recalls the fruitfulness of the “tender sprig” that God promises to plant on a “high and lofty mountain” (17:22–23). It also anticipates the vision in Ezekiel 40–48 where Ezekiel gets positioned for the vision. He is on a very high mountain in the land of Israel (40:2; so too Isa 2:2; Mic 4:1). With “my holy mountain,” we have the first mention in the book of a prominent theme in the biblical corpus, the promise about Mount Zion. God promised to bring his people to “the mountain of his inheritance,” God’s established dwelling place, and plant them there (Exod 15:17). David secures Mount Zion, and it becomes God’s dwelling (Ps 2:6) and a place for sacrifices (2Sam 6:16, 18). The nations bring their gifts to Zion (1Kgs 4:20; 10:1–13; Isa 60:6–7). In the New Covenant, Zion is a metonymy for the people of God (cf. Gal 3, 4, 6; Rom 4). Acts 2 inaugurates a new era that produces a flow of nations who have inherited God’s promises (cf. Rev 5:11ff; 7:9; 14:1–20).

29. In the English Bible, Ezekiel 20:45–21:32 corresponds to Ezekiel 21:1–37 in the Hebrew Bible, a complete unit of thought about the sword that consist of five sections.

30.Because the LXX reflects a messianic interpretation of Ezekiel 21:27, Christian interpreters since Jerome have adopted this reading: “until he comes to whom it rightfully belongs; to him I will give it” (NIV). Block points out that this is so even though in Ezekiel misphat doesn’t mean “right, claim” but judgment, custom, or justice (Block, 692). Accordingly, he renders verse 27 “until he comes to whom the judgment belongs, to whom I will give it.” Read this way the verse refers to the punishment or judgment that Nebuchadnezzar will bring (Block, 692). In order to dash all false bases of hope, Ezekiel transforms a familiar text into a statement of doom (Block, 692–93). This rhetorical device used quite consistently by Ezekiel in the book offers yet another way the prophet shocks his audience.

31. Prior to this section, Jerusalem’s depravity was compared to that of Sodom and said to be worse (16:46–47). The shock factor for the audience would have been profound. In a more subtle yet still poignant way, a comparison seems to be made between Jerusalem and Nineveh. The 7^th-century prophet Nahum (3:1) designates Nineveh a “bloody city,” a “city of bloodshed” (Block, 703). While one cannot be certain that Ezekiel’s audience was fully aware of this fact, the prophet places Jerusalem on par with a city renowned for its violence in the ancient world. 

32. The NIV footnote highlights the textual variant. It follows the LXX not the MT which has “her prophets”. Given the content of verse 25 it seems to refer to activity of Judah’s nobility rather than her prophets. It is likely that the MT reflects a scribal error and thus the LXX reading is to be preferred.

33. One wonders if God’s interactions with Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen 18:22–33) are in the background of this statement in Ezekiel 22:30. If God could find ten righteous persons in Sodom and Gomorrah, he intended to spare the cities. The assumption, of course, is that ten righteous people (few to be sure) might secure a positive outcome. God does not have such high hopes for Jerusalem. He hopes to find just one person to help avert his wrath. Again, Jerusalem comes out worse than Sodom and Gomorrah (16:44–52). 

34. In Egypt and while enslaved to Pharaoh, the newly formed nation depended on a pagan power for provision, protection, and security. Regardless of witnessing the Lord’s supernatural provisions “in that land” (23:3), their actions revealed a codependence. Even though the exodus revealed that they did not need to rely on a pagan power because Yahweh miraculously saved them and provided for their needs, they still looked to Egypt (Exod 17:3; Num 11:5, 18; 14:2–4, Ezek 20:5–8; Isa 30). 

35. Although a total of seven nations are highlighted in this section (chs. 25–32), no condemnation for their current oppressor, Babylon, exists. Perhaps the omission pertains to political reasons. Instead, Babylon does God’s bidding against these nations, a positive thing for God’s people. Although partly an assumption, but given Jeremiah’s word against Babylon, it seems that Israel would expect God to deal with Babylon in similar fashion as the other nations. Some have supposed that Ezekiel 38–39 contains a veiled reference to the nation of Babylon, but this remains difficult to know. 

36. The date of this prophecy in the 11^th year of exile (587 BC) is problematic because Jerusalem did not fall until the 12^th year of their exile, July 18, 586 (33:21). The prophecy describes Tyre’s gloating over the destruction of Jerusalem (26:2), even though Jerusalem did not fall until 586 BC (see 2Kgs 25:2–3) and was not burned until Aug. 14, 586 (see 2Kgs 25:8), several months after the date given here for Tyre’s celebration of the fact that Jerusalem “now . . . she is laid waste” (26:2). Moreover, the month of the eleventh year is missing. To solve the latter problem, some believe that the probable reading of the original Hebrew text in 26:1 was “In the eleventh month of the twelfth year, on the first day of the month” and that the words “twelfth year” must have been inadvertently omitted by a copyist. The restored reading would yield the date February 3, 585, which would nicely fit the chronology in 33:21. To solve the year problem, interpreters attribute a scribal error in 33:21 to possible confusion of consonants between eleven and twelve in biblical Hebrew, aligning 33:21 with 26:1. If, on the other hand, the Hebrew text that has come down to us is correct, then the Lord (through Ezekiel) is prophesying what Tyre’s response to Jerusalem’s fall will be and how the Lord, in turn, will judge Tyre. This is something that Ezekiel does with some frequency throughout the book (e.g., 24:15–27). 

37. The oracle against Egypt that commences in 29:1 dates about a year before this bundle of oracles in chapters 25–28; the remaining oracles against Egypt (chs. 30–32) fall roughly within the same time period of chapters 25–28. For this reason, Ezekiel 28:20–24 functions as a concluding statement to all of these oracles.

38. From a chronological perspective one expects to have this report immediately following the death of Ezekiel’s wife (24:15–27), without the literary interruption of the oracles against the nations (chs. 25–32). But the news of Jerusalem’s fall marks a new phase for the remnant, a transition from mourning to joy. Joy and restoration could not be realized until Israel’s enemies were destroyed (chs. 25–32). 

39. The ESV renders the Hebrew more precisely than the NIV in Ezekiel 33:31–32.

40. The same Hebrew word used twice here in Ezekiel 33:31–32 is also used of Oholobah’s (Jerusalem’s) out-of-control lust and prostitution (23:11). The portrait of the exiles as craving and desiring the sensual continues to reveal their heart posture. 

41. God’s covenants aim at peace (see Ge 26:28–31; Nu 25:12; Isa 54:10; Mal 2:5.

42. Isaiah speaks of Jesus as the promised “prince of peace” (Isa 9:6).

43. They occupied what is now southwestern Jordan. This location was lofty, tucked away in the mountain crags and thus out of enemy reach.

44. The expansion here is necessary since Edom’s desolation is directly related to Israel’s restoration in the larger section of Ezekiel 34–48. The Edomites descended from Esau, the older and twin brother of Jacob. Both were sons of Isaac and Rebekah. Ezekiel along with other prophets such as Jeremiah (Jer 9:25–26; 49:7–39) and Amos (Amos 1:11–15), but especially Obadiah (Obad 1:1–21) give context to the problem. Throughout their history, Israel’s neighbor to the east in Transjordan antagonized Israel (Obad 1:10, 17–18). Obadiah describes their malicious conduct when the Babylonians attacked Jerusalem (1:10–14). From Obadiah’s perspective, Edom is scolded as a representative of all the nations mistreating Israel (1:15–16). Obadiah promises that Edom will be repaid for mistreating the Israelites. 

45. So too chapters 25–32 (OAN) where God is angry towards those who treated Israel badly. 

46. Within one hundred years of Obadiah’s word against Edom, it was ruined. It was conquered by the Nabatean Arabs, who took control of the area as early as 500 BC. Those who left the region at that time fled to the western side of the Dead Sea, and it became Idumean until the Romans laid waste to it in 68 AD.

47. This two-step act of recreating reminds of God’s initial act of creation (Gen 2:7).

48. NIV “the people of Israel.”

49. Although clear statements of bodily life after death are not common in the OT, one of the clearest comes in Daniel (Dan 12:2–3; see also Isa 26:19; Hos 6:1–2; 13:14; Job 19; Ps 22). Ezekiel contributes only slightly to the OT teaching on resurrection.

50. I am in debt to X. Zhang, whose work has contributed, in part, to my own analysis of this vision, especially the structure of it. The reader will see evidence of my reliance on his material in certain places. See Discourse Analysis of Ezekiel 40–48: Keeping God’s Holiness, PhD Dissertation (Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Xiubin Zhang, 2017).

51. Even though Ezekiel himself classifies the genre of these chapters as “visions of God” (40:2), no real agreement exists among scholars because of the divergent language used throughout. It contains legal and cultic materials woven together with prophetic, apocalyptic, symbolic, and eschatological elements. It merges well-known physical realities with idealized ones (the description of the temple as a perfect square), which challenges the interpreter. Given that God spoke and revealed this to Ezekiel, most tend to treat it as prophecy. Accordingly, prophetic fulfillment of the vision, a rebuilt temple, becomes the expectation. 

52. God promises that the righteous shepherd will bring them back to the land and pasture them on the mountains of Israel and that the mountain heights of Israel will be their grazing land and rich pasture (34:13–14). God promises that his people will reinhabit the mountains of Israel and that the mountains will experience fruitfulness (36:1, 4, 6, 8; cf. 35:1–36:15). He promises unity on the mountains of Israel (37:22). He promises that in the mountains of Israel Gog will suffer defeat and open shame (38:8, 21; 39:2, 4, 17). Now he shows Ezekiel a picture of renewed worship from the vantage point of a very high mountain (40:2). 

53. The space inside this structure represents 2.7 square miles.

54. The key to unlocking the structure of this literary slice concerns 43:11 (see X. Zhang, 2017). That which Ezekiel is required to transcribe in chapters 40–48 gets its literary shape from this verse. This is so because the “design” of the temple and its “regulations” form a word pair three times in the verse. Accordingly, the content of chapters 40–48 alternates between giving the design of a part of the temple complex along with its corresponding statutes. Zhang notes the following structure: (1) the arrangement and rules of the new temple complex (Ezek 40:1–44:3; 45:1–7), (2) the rules for the priests (Ezek 44:4–31), (3) the rules for the prince (Ezek 45:8–46:18), and (4) the distribution of the land (Ezek 47:1–48:35). Numbers 1 and 4 manifest God’s holiness in their respective designs, and numbers 2 and 3 instruct Israel on how to maintain that holiness. According to Zhang, the overall structure of Ezekiel 40–48 informs about God’s holiness. 

55. The number twelve, because of its origin with Israel and God’s promises to him and his family (Gen 49:28), is used repeatedly in the Old Testament (Exod 24:4; Num 13:1–16; Josh 3–4; 1Kgs 10:20; etc.). 

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