2 Kings

In Hebrew tradition the Books of Kings belong to a group of writings called the Former Prophets. This tradition, which developed long before the time of Christ, made the Books of Kings the last in the order of four prophetic scrolls. These scrolls were listed as Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings. Scribes provided the total number of verses at the end of each of these scrolls. The Latter Prophets consisted of four large scrolls called Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve. The scroll of the Twelve consisted of all the books modern translations call the Minor Prophets.

In the first centuries after Christ, Christians began to publish their sacred writings in a book form called a codex. The Christian order of biblical books was fixed by the sequence they were given in the codex. Christians used the Old Testament in Greek and Latin translations. The Greek translations were completed before the time of Christ, and their various editions were used by New Testament writers. Both the manuscripts and the earliest lists of Genesis through Chronicles are as we know them in modern translations.

Kings in Greek Bibles has two distinct differences from the Hebrew. The Greek translation has 1 Kings 21 before chapter 20, so Naboth’s vineyard follows the account of Elijah. Some Greek manuscripts also end the story of David at 1 Kings 2:11, so the Books of Kings begin at 1 Kings 2:12 in our Bibles with the reign of Solomon. Perhaps most importantly, Christians tend to read Kings as a history along with Chronicles. The Hebrew has Kings as a prophetic work continuing the story of the covenant with Moses. Chronicles is a separate history written much later, so in the Hebrew Bible, it is placed in their third section with Psalms, Proverbs, and other non-prophetic writings.

Kings is not an ordinary history. It has as its central concern a review of how the nations of Israel and Judah under their respective kings lived in relation to the covenant given by Moses. The prophetic authors of Kings use the last words of Moses in the Book of Deuteronomy as their measure for covenant faithfulness. The Book of Deuteronomy may be viewed in two parts, the first ending with the requirement to renew the covenant ceremony at Shechem in chapter 11. This requirement is repeated in greater detail in chapter 27. The first eleven chapters focus on faithfulness by learning to love and fear the Lord in keeping the ten words given at Mount Sinai. The latter half of Deuteronomy describes how the covenant was to be lived in the land, covering matters of worship, leadership, and various civil regulations. Moses left this as the instruction to be followed by kings. Rulers of Israel were to retain and read a copy of this law so they would always obey it (Deut 17:18–20). The prophetic writers in Kings consistently use this as their standard for evaluating each king and providing instruction concerning the work of God.

The method of the prophetic writers included a precise chronology that is both necessary for the readers yet difficult to understand. For example, King Omri is said to have begun his reign in the 31st year of the reign of Asa (1Kgs 16:23). He is succeeded by Ahab in the 38th year of Asa (16:29), though he reigned for twelve years. This is typical in Kings; the chronology requires interpretation that was self-evident to the authors. In addition to their method of chronology is a deliberate selection of material. The account begins with the reign of Solomon in about 970 BC and ends with Jehoiachin in exile released from prison in about 560 BC. The whole period of the composition is four centuries, almost the period from the Reformation to the present time. The reign of Omri, the first dynasty of Israel, began in 883 BC. His dynasty ended with the extermination of his sons by Jehu in 840 BC. The account of this one generation of about forty years begins in 1 Kings 16 and ends in 2 Kings 10, approximately seventeen chapters of the total of forty-seven chapters, just over one third of the total. This lopsided presentation of the nation is purposely provided in this way. The Israelites as well as Judah were constantly threatened by the materialism of the Baal cult. The narrative of the dynasty of Omri demonstrates in detail the temptations that plagued Israel and Judah, leading to their destruction and exile. Chronology and the selection of material were the means the prophetic writers used to achieve their goal to show Israelite disobedience in not serving God alone. Their punishment was death; the nation went into exile.

The Books of Kings show that God is faithful to his word and his covenant. Prophets after the exile are careful to observe this truth. Zechariah begins his prophecy by reminding those who have returned from exile of the lessons of the covenant. “Where are the fathers and the prophets of old? Has not the prophetic word come into fulfilment in their destiny, in that they have received the consequences of the curse exactly as the prophets had said?” (Zech 1:5–6). This prophetic story is to teach God’s people to live by his covenant that they may receive his blessing rather than the curse.

Like most ancient compositions, the authors of this great work remain anonymous. They have left record of some of the prophetic sources they used. These are listed as the record of Solomon (1Kgs 11:41), the records of the kings of Israel (1Kgs 14:19), and the records of the kings of Judah (1Kgs 15:7). The Chronicler provides an almost identical enumeration of sources for the kings of Judah (the Chronicler does not deal with the kings of Israel), but he frequently includes a prophetic name with his source. This indicates that Kings was largely composed of prophetic historical essays written from reign to reign. These were not royal records, as the scribes of Kings did not concern themselves with the prophetic burden revealed in Kings. Further, there is far too much criticism of almost all the kings for these to have been preserved as official monarchical records. Many of the prophets of these essays would have had access to royal records, and some of them would have served the king, as Gad did for David (2Sam 24:11). The narrative of Kings is presented as a composition created from these prophetic accounts.

One such account has probably been preserved in a modified form in 2 Kings 18:13–20:19. The same narrative is found in Isaiah 36–39, though chapter 38 especially has been adapted for the message of Isaiah concerning Jerusalem. A study of the text of these two passages is indicative of a common text from which they were taken, for the most part repeated in the same verbal form.¹ The prophet Isaiah was intimately associated with Hezekiah, both in the critical times of his illness and the Assyrian decimation of Judah, which ended with the siege of Jerusalem. This would seem to be the kind of prophetic account used by the authors of Kings.

There are indications that this composition covering 400 years was written in stages. The reign of Hezekiah was a time of renewal and change. Just before his reign the Assyrians had captured Samaria and ended the autonomy of the kingdom of Israel. This gave Hezekiah the opportunity to extend an invitation to all Israel to worship at Jerusalem, which resulted in a great response (2Chr 30). Hezekiah engaged in a great deal of military and cultural renewal after the dark days of Ahaz. Hezekiah is the first king to make Jerusalem the only place where all Israel should worship. In Deuteronomy, worshiping at the place God would choose (Deut 12:5) is a requirement repeated many times.

A literary indication of the stages of Kings may be seen in the authorial assessment of each king that structures the composition. These assessments begin with Solomon (1Kgs 3:2–3) and continue with Rehoboam in the South (1Kgs 14:22) and Nadab in the North (1Kgs 15:34). Scribal differences in these notations suggest that the first edition of Kings extended from Jehoshaphat to Hezekiah. This was expanded during the reign of Josiah and again during the exile.² The final composition shows that the Book of Kings as we have it was integrated with the other three books of the Former Prophets to show the work of God from Joshua to the exile.

The continuing promise of God was announced by Ahijah the prophet when the northern kingdom was taken away from Solomon and given to his rival Jeroboam. The light of David for all time would continue in Judah in the city which God had chosen (1Kgs 11:36). This promise is repeated in the succession of the dynasty of David (1Kgs 15:4; 2Kgs 8:19). There is only one God in Israel (1Kgs 18:36; 2Kgs 5:15), and he keeps his promise. The prophetic message of Kings prevents worship of a divided mind; it drives readers to an undivided opinion of the work of God in Israel.

“Yet the Lord warned Israel and Judah by every prophet and every seer, saying, ‘Turn from your evil ways and keep my commandments and my statutes, in accordance with all the Law that I commanded your fathers, and that I sent to you by my servants the prophets.’”

— 2 Kings 17:13 ESV

I. Ahaziah and Elijah (1:1–18)

A. International Relations (1:1)

B. Death of Ahaziah (1:2–18)

II. Succession of Elijah (2:1–25)

III. War with Moab (3:1–27)

A. Joram Son of Ahab (3:1–3)

B. Military Crisis (3:4–27)

IV. Days of Elisha (4:1–8:15)

A. Rescue of a Widow’s Sons (4:1–7)

B. Gift of a Son (4:8–37)

C. Provision for the Prophets (4:38–44)

D. Healing of Naaman (5:1–27)

E. A Floating Ax (6:1–7)

F. Deception of the Arameans (6:8–23)

G. Siege of Samaria (6:24–7:20)

H. Justice in Land Claims (8:1–6)

I. Elisha Announces the Rule of Hazael (8:7–15)

V. Kings of Judah (8:16–29)

VI. Revolution of Jehu (9:1–10:36)

A. Anointing of Jehu (9:1–13)

B. Assassination of Joram and Amaziah (9:14–29)

C. Murder of Jezebel (9:30–37)

D. Extermination of the House of Ahab (10:1–11)

E. Extermination of the House of Ahaziah (10:12–14)

F. Alliance with the Rechabites (10:15–17)

G. Elimination of the Baal Followers (10:18–27)

H. Rule of Jehu (10:28–36)

VII. Reign of Joash (11:1–12:21)

A. Reign of Athalia (11:1–3)

B. Installation of Joash (11:4–20)

C. The Repair of the Temple (11:21–12:21)

VIII. Reigns of Jehoahaz and Jehoash (13:1–13)

IX. Prophetic Promise of Victory (13:14–25)

X. Reign of Amaziah (14:1–22)

XI. Reign of Jeroboam (14:23–29)

XII. Reign of Azariah (15:1–7)

XIII. Demise of Israel (15:8–31)

XIV. Demise of Judah (15:32–16:20)

A. Reign of Jotham (15:32–38)

B. Reign of Ahaz (16:1–20)

XV. End of Israel (17:1–41)

A. Reign of Hoshea (17:1–6)

B. Unfaithfulness of Israel (17:7–23)

C. Resettlement of Samaria (17:24–41)

XVI. Reign of Hezekiah (18:1–20:21)

A. Faithfulness of Hezekiah (18:1–12)

B. Plundering of Judah (18:13–16)

C. Siege of Jerusalem (18:17–19:35)

D. Illness of Hezekiah (20:1–11)

E. Betrayal to Merodach-baladan (20:12–19)

F. Summary Conclusion (20:20–21)

XVII. State of Judah (21:1–23:30)

A. Abominations of Manasseh (21:1–18)

B. Assassination of Amon (21:18–26)

C. Reforms of Josiah (22:1–23:30)

XVIII. Foreign Control of Judah (23:31–24:17)

A. Reign of Jehoahaz (23:31–35)

B. Reign of Jehoiakim (23:36–24:7)

C. Reign of Jehoiachin (24:8–17)

XIX. Fall of Jerusalem (24:18–25:30)

A. Plunder of Jerusalem (24:18–25:21)

B. Rule of Gedaliah (25:22–26)

C. Release of Jehoiachin (25:27–30)

The death of Ahab brought an immediate decline in the influence of Israel in Transjordan. The Mesha Inscription (or Moabite Stone) makes reference to the king of Moab gaining independence after the death of Ahab, reclaiming the level plain from Aroer to Medeba.

1:2–16 When Ahaziah suffered a serious injury from a fall, he sent a delegation to seek help from a Philistine god known in scripture as Bel-Zebub, lord of the flies (cf. Matt 10:25; 12:24). This is a derogatory name for Bel-Zebul, prince Baal, well known as a Syrian god. The delegation was confronted by Elijah, who announced the judgment of death declared upon Ahaziah for his denial of the God he knows. Ahaziah recognized the prophet by his appearance and was determined to arrest his opponent. Two military delegations were consumed by fire. A third delegation pleaded for mercy, submitting to the power of God. Elijah then met Ahaziah and gave to him the same message which he had received earlier. Loyalty to God cannot be compromised, because there is no other God.

1:17–18 Ahaziah died without a successor. Two dates are given for the succession of Joram, a second son of Ahaz. Here it is in the second year of Jehoram, son of Jehoshaphat. Joram is also said to come to reign in the eighteenth year of Jehoshaphat (2Kgs 3:1), indicating that Jehoram reigned with his father at this time. Jehoram came to sole rule in the twenty-fifth year of Jehoshaphat when the king died (8:16). With good wisdom, Jehoshaphat placed his son on the throne before he went to war with Moab.

2:1–18 The transformation of Elijah took place through the theophany of a storm (2:1), described in the way God appeared to Job (Job 38:1; 40:6). The divine action is revealed in several stages as Elijah made his way to the Jordan. Prophetic messages confirmed the divinely ordained event. The designation of Elisha to succeed Elijah is shown in the process as Elijah tests him repeatedly by asking him to turn back. The episode recalls Joshua succeeding Moses in the public designation of the successor, where Moses announced his departure from Israel and the crossing of the Jordan on dry land took place. The event is unique. While the grave of Moses could never be known, as he was divinely buried (Deut 34:5–6), Elijah had no burial, as his body was divinely translated by the heavenly royal chariot (2Kgs 2:11), perhaps like that seen by Ezekiel. To establish that Elijah had no grave (he was a man who could suddenly disappear), his body was searched for but not found, a final confirmation for Elisha.

2:19–25 Two events confirmed the observation of the prophets at Jericho that Elisha received the spirit and power of Elijah (2:15). The first was the healing of the waters for the prophetic group at Jericho so they would no longer cause sterility (it is not stated if this was sterility of land, animals, people, or all three). The second was the judgment of a group of renegade scoffers who derided his prophetic credentials. A “bald head” is the converse of a prophet as a person with long hair (1:8). These were not mere juveniles but those that had defiantly rejected a divinely ordained prophet and his God. A mauling by two bears was the punishment for such blasphemy. Return to Mount Carmel completes the transition for the successor of Elijah.

Mesha, king of Moab, describes how he overcame the control of the dynasty of Omri in the Moabite stele. Moab took control of territory north of the Arnon river (the city of Aroer) to Medeba, the whole plateau east of the Dead Sea. This cut off access to the shipping ports at Ezion Geber for Israel.

Joram removed some of the cult objects Ahab had erected in honor of Baal (1Kgs 16:31–33). The standing stone was a common representation of a deity at a cult site, signifying the presence of the god. Jehu destroyed this pillar (2Kgs 10:26–27) when he purged the Baal cult.

3:4–8 Moab revolted against Israel, resulting in a significant loss of revenue of lambs and wool. Joram continued the alliance with Jehoshaphat and so enlisted his help in addressing the revolt. Edom in turn was subservient to Judah, as its king only served as a governor (1Kgs 22:48). Since Moab now controlled the whole plateau to the east, the attack had to come from the south along the road from Edom. This road was probably the way along the wadi Zered east of the Dead Sea in the direction of Horonaim.

3:9–20 The long journey exhausted the water supplies for the large number of men and the animals needed to carry all the resources for the armies. An unidentified informant directed the king of Israel to consult Elisha, a prophet known to have served Elijah. Out of respect for Jehoshaphat, Elisha called for musicians to inspire a word of prophecy (cf. 1Sam 10:5). The prophet promised water for the whole camp. Cloudbursts can occur in the steep desert wadis, bringing water rushing down into the valleys where those present may never hear or see any sign of a storm. In addition to the promise of water, the prophet gave assurance that Moab would be smitten (2Kgs 3:19). This is not a command demanding total devastation of land and trees, contrary to the rules of war (Deut 20:19), but rather the result of the conflict.

3:21–27 At the report of war, the Moabites rallied everyone capable of bearing arms. The water in the glow of the rising sun appeared as blood-stained to the Moabites, who assumed a mutiny in the coalition. Unprepared, they were routed back to the city of Kir Haresheth (the city of Moab; Isa 15:1). The Moabite king, to appease the wrath of his god Chemosh, sacrificed his son in public. The Israelites, however, failed to take advantage of the victory God had given them. Divine wrath for this failure of faith resulted in their return without recovering any of the territory lost to Moab.

These stories of Elisha are not given a chronological sequence. They are dated generically as “one day” (2Kgs 4:8, 11, 18) or “some time later” (6:24). There are no personal names of political officials. They portray the work of God through Eisha, the true king of Israel. They further show the peril of the apostacy that destroyed Israel. Elisha provides for justice and well-being because of the failure of the Israelite king. They occur in a time of conflict with the Arameans; they show the sovereign work of God through his prophet during the dying days of the Omride dynasty.

Widows were vulnerable in ancient times because they had no independent means of providing for their families. The prophets as a group were severely oppressed in the days of Jezebel, who was aggressive in supporting the Baal cult and actively attempted to eliminate prophets of Yahweh (cf. 1Kgs 18:4). The widow of a prophet would be particularly destitute. Israelite practice made provision for working off a debt (cf. Exod 21:1–11), but the loss of sons even temporarily would leave a widow utterly helpless. Oil was a valuable commodity used extensively in cooking and as a clean source of light and a medicine. Olives, vineyards, and grain were the staples for Israelite livelihood.

The second story is of a wealthy woman of Shunem, a town in Isssachar (Josh 19:18) in the rich farming area of the Jezreel valley. Elisha was distinguished from other prophets as a holy man (2Kgs 4:9), an itinerant prophet who had given up his own vocation of farming (1Kgs 19:19–21) to have a full-time vocation in providing for the bands of prophets. This woman had decided to provide a lodging for Elisha where he could stay regularly in his itinerant work. Elisha in turn offered to show some form of appreciation to this woman. She was childless and past the age of bearing children. According to the word of the prophet, in the spring (“the time of reviving”) she would bear a son, a most precious gift to a childless woman.

The story advances to some years later when the worst fears of the woman seemed to come true. Her child died; the promise was really a deception. The woman, however, did not lose faith but immediately sought out the prophet to bring him in person to the child. Her husband did not understand her resolve and questioned the occasion for her going to the prophet (2Kgs 4:22–23). For him, the seeking of a prophet would be for the occasion of some festival event like a Sabbath or a new moon. The woman persisted, and Elijah responded to her urgency, sending Gehazi on ahead as assurance that he was coming. Elijah secluded himself in seeking the mercy of God for life. His confession of faith is expressed in his actions of warming the body of the lad with the expectation that God will give the miracle of life just as he has at the birth of the child. The child was restored to the arms of his mother, who emotionally expressed her gratitude in the same way she had expressed her grief. This event is the confession to all Israel that humans do not live by bread alone but by learning to trust the One who is the source of all life.

Two short stories show the simple life of the prophetic groups. Elisha regularly traveled from his home in Carmel to various locations in Israel. Prophetic life was subsistence living, and often there was a shortage of food (4:38). A visit to Gilgal was typical (4:38–41); upon the arrival of their leader, the prophets would gather as a group to hear his teaching and would share a common meal. This was the simplest of meals gathered from edible foods that could be found. In this case the person gathering the food did not realize he had sliced into the pot a “bitter apple,” a small yellow melon (commonly called “the apple of Sodom”) that is a strong purgative. When the men became sick, Elisha provided flour that neutralized the effect. On other occasions Elisha would receive visitors. At a time of offering first fruits, a man came from Shalishah, territory near Shaalim and Zuph in Benjamin near Mount Ephraim (1Sam 9:4–5). He brought bread and fresh ears of grain. The amount brought as an offering seemed much too little for a hundred men, but at the word of Elisha all were fed with some left over.

5:1–14 Naaman was a highly accomplished military general whose life was hampered by a skin ailment called leprosy (not Hansen’s disease). A servant girl acquired from his raids in Israel suggested he see a prophet in her country. Naaman promptly reported this to the king of Aram, who in turn prepared a letter and sizable gift to prepare diplomatic relations with the king of Israel. The amount of silver alone was five times the price of acquiring the hill of Samaria (1Kgs 16:24). The nature of the request was interpreted by the king of Israel as incitement to war. Word reached Elisha, who used the opportunity as a testimony to the universal sovereignty of Yahweh. Elisha may still have been at Gilgal, so the ritual of dipping in the Jordan would be natural. Failure of the prophet to see this important man was offensive, but he was persuaded to comply and was healed.

5:15–19a Elisha refused gifts from Naaman because he would not use the mercy of God for a personal benefit, despite the need of the prophets. The faith of Naaman shows the universal rule of God over all nations. Naaman was determined that Yahweh would be the only God he would worship, even though he would be required to ritually attend the worship of the Syrian gods. An altar of Israelite earth served as a testimony to his commitment.

5:19b–27 Gehazi did not share the faith of Elisha. He was prepared to allow the Syrian to think that divine mercy deserved a material reward and pursued the general for a gift, which was generously awarded. He surely did not think this could be hidden from his master, but the opportunity to temporarily escape poverty overcame him. Greed creates irrational thinking. His penalty might seem severe, but it fit the severity of the offense of betraying the mercy of God and subverting Naaman’s view of God.

The life of the prophets is seen in them needing to construct a larger place to meet with Elisha. In the process of building, an ax head was lost in the water. Iron was rare in Israel. In the days of Saul an ax had to be taken to the Philistines for sharpening (1Sam 13:20–21). The anguish of the borrower can be well understood. Elisha crafted a handle similar to the broken one (qtsb), so it fitted in the ax hole to float the iron.

The Arameans had made deep incursions into the land of Israel, but they were repeatedly rendered powerless by the knowledge of Elisha. He reported their activities to protect his people and the Israelite king. The Aramean king sent a heavy military force to arrest Elisha at Dothan, a city in the western part of the Jezreel valley not far from Samaria. The army was struck with a kind of blinding light (cf. Gen 19:11) and led into captivity in Samaria. Since this was God’s warfare, the king of Israel was forbidden to attack the captive army. Instead, they were sent away as witnesses to the universal power of the God of Elisha.

The occasion of this siege against Samaria is not known since the kings are not named. All the stories of Elisha have been grouped together for their theological message; their arrangement is topical, not chronological. Siege warfare was a tactic to bring a fortified city to surrender through starvation. When the king in Samaria heard cries for help from a woman, he assumed she was asking for food he could not give. She in fact was asking for justice in her gruesome quest for food. Cattle food such as carob pods (dove’s dung) or unclean food such as a donkey’s head were so scarce that the latter was more than twice the price of a slave (cf. Exod 21:32).

The frustrated king turned on the prophet who had threatened him with divine judgment and sent a messenger to arrest him. Elisha barred the door to restrain the messenger, knowing that the repentant king would arrive immediately. Elisha promised abundant relief from the famine within the day. The king’s official was completely skeptical. Such a miracle could not even be imagined. His judgment was that he would see the event but not benefit from it.

The good news came through the most unlikely source. Four lepers were isolated and forced to live outside the city. Their fate was to starve or be killed by an Aramean attack. They decided to defect to the Arameans as this was their best hope of survival. When they got to the camp, they discovered the entire army had fled. The reason was that they had heard the sound of attacking forces. The king risked his last horses to investigate. The food and goods abandoned by the fleeing Arameans was more than enough to provide for the besieged city. The story is another example of the prophet making provision that was the responsibility of the king. The king was rendered powerless because of his unfaithfulness to God.

Even the wealthy woman of Shunem (cf. 2Kgs 4:8) could be driven to become a refugee during a severe famine. The woman of the miracle child owned substantial property, which was taken over in her absence. No details are given on the legal procedure. It was justice to restore the property, a responsibility of the king, but it is clear in this case that the king acted on the basis of reports he heard of the great benefit Elisha had provided.

While Elisha was in Damascus, Ben-Hadad king of Aramea sent his deputy Hazael to inquire about the outcome of his serious illness. The prophet had a double message: the king would not die because of illness but through assassination. While Hazael accepted this with a stunned silence, Elisha broke out weeping for Israel. The word that Hazael would mercilessly attack Israel was insulting at that moment. Nevertheless, he promptly carried out the execution of his master. The message of the prophet was especially to Israel. When Hazael became king, the wars of the Arameans would lead to devastating punishment for their apostacy.

8:16–19 The fifth year of Joram in Israel was when Jehoram became sole ruler (cf. 1:17–18). The alliance between Israel and Judah had resulted in inter-marriage of the royal families, so that Judah now became apostate in the same way as Israel. It was the mercy of the Lord to preserve a lamp of David (cf. 2Sam 21:17), a key theme of the Kings narrative.

8:20–24 The military control of Judah continued to diminish as Israel became weaker. Judah lost control over Edomite territory and access to the gulf of Aqaba in the revolt of Edom. Jehoram sent a military force to Zoar, at the south end of the Dead Sea, but he was unsuccessful in his attempt to subjugate Edom. It remained independent and hostile until the exile.

Libnah was a key fortified city in the southwestern part of the state near Lachish and Gezer. The weakness of king Jehoram enabled the city to rebel, possibly with the assistance of Philistines and Arabs. This further reduced the defences of Judah.

8:25–29 The one notable event of Ahaziah, son of Athaliah, daughter of Jezebel, was his effort to assist Joram in the attempt to restore Ramoth Gilead to Israelite control. The result was injury to the Israelite king. He was forced to retreat to Jezreel to recover. This was a military and royal city just across the Jordan river to the west. Ahaziah showed his continuing alliance with the king of Israel with a visit there.

This section transitions to a new dynasty in the history of Israel. This is the result of the execution of God’s judgment on the house of Ahab in avenging the blood of Naboth, noted in both the death of Joram and Jezebel. Except for the mercy of God in maintaining the lamp of David (2Kgs 8:19), the house of David, which became allied to Israel, would also have come to an end.

Elisha was involved in the final judgment on the house of Ahab through his anointing of the military leader Jehu as king of Israel. He sent his representative to Ramoth Gilead where the army was stationed in the ongoing war with the Arameans. The behaviour of the messenger betrayed his prophetic message. Jehu was hailed as king on the steps of the fortification.

9:14–26 Jehu immediately set out to fulfil the mission of the coronation that had taken place. Joram had retreated to Jezreel to heal, so he might have expected news from his commanding officer. The question about peace puts the focus on the mission: peace must come to Israel. Joram might have been inquiring about events at Ramoth Gilead, but when the first messenger failed to return, he knew this was no ordinary report. He set out to meet Jehu, who had come with armed troops (9:17). The king could not resist his attack, and his attempt to flee failed.

9:27–29 Ahaziah had accompanied his ally Joram to meet Jehu and attempted to flee. Ahaziah was not only an ally but also a relative by marriage (cf. 8:26). Jehu pursued him as he attempted to flee across the valley of Jezreel and wounded him. He sought refuge at the fortified city of Megiddo, but he died there. He was brought back to Jerusalem and buried in the royal cemetery.

With the death of her son, Jezebel knew that her time had come. She prepared as a queen for the occasion to die with what dignity she retained. Jehu was so enraged that he did not give instructions for her burial until her body was consumed by scavenging animals. This was not only the greatest of insults to any person, but in her case also a fulfilment of the prophetic word.

Jehu’s next task was to take control of the fortified city of Samaria. This he did by first testing the loyalty of the leadership there. He sent letters from Jezreel demanding to know if they intended to name a successor to the throne. The leaders recognized that Jehu had the loyalty of the military, so their own resistance would be hopeless. Jehu then demanded that they surrender all potential claimants to power. They took this to mean, as Jehu no doubt intended, that they should be executed. Jehu used this as evidence of a popular uprising supporting his rule.

On the way to Samaria, Jehu went out of his way to reconnoitre for other resistance to his rule. His route took him to the highlands south of Gilboa in the plane of Esdraelon, in the area of modern Jenin, the area where Ahaziah was caught. There he encountered the brothers of Ahaziah, who ostensibly were seeking the welfare of their relatives. Jehu suspected them of subversive activity and executed them all.

Jehonadab the Rechabite sought out an alliance with Jehu. The Rechabites were itinerants who refused wine and an agricultural way of life (cf. Jer 35:5–11). Rejection of the Canaanite way of life and of the Baal religion may have been motivation for Jehonadab to seek friendship with Jehu.

Jehu used the ruse of a great Baal festival to assemble all the followers of Baal in Israel to the temple for a sacrifice. He ensured their identity by having everyone in their proper attire. Outside the temple he had assembled armed officers whose task was to kill everyone inside; allowing any to escape would be at the cost of the life of the officer. The sacred pillar of Baal was both crushed and burned. The whole temple complex was destroyed and left as a dump.

Jehu is commended for ending the veneration of Baal as promoted under Ahab, but he is condemned for the continued worship of the calf shrines at Bethel and Dan. He is promised a dynasty of four generations, a rule of about a hundred years that extends almost to the time of the Assyrian exile of Israel (see chronological chart). His rule appears to have brought stability to the state of Israel, but its military was severely weakened. The Aramean took over the entire Transjordan to the Moabite territory at Arnon. The Assyrian black obelisk, a commemoration to Shalmaneser III, famously depicts Jehu bowing before the Assyrian king with massive tribute from Judah. The reign of Jehu began with oppression on every side.

Joash was divinely rescued to preserve the promise to David that one of his descendants would always reign on the throne in Jerusalem. He was the sole survivor after Jehu’s executions.

The chaos in Judah that surrounded the slaughter of Jehu enabled Athalia, daughter of Jezebel, to obtain the support of the military in becoming queen. She immediately set out to kill all the male descendants of Ahaziah, but not other members of the family. One of the survivors was her own sister Jehosheba, a daughter of Jehoram (2Chr 22:11). She was also the wife of the high priest Jehoiada. The royal family was divided; a sister of queen Athalia preserved a son of king Ahaziah. This would lead to the execution of the queen. Judah was truly like other nations.

11:4–12 The king was anointed in the temple court. Jehoiada the priest made elaborate preparation for security by ensuring that he had the loyalty of all the temple and palace guards. The account in Chronicles indicates that the Levites also had a significant role in ensuring the anointing of the king (2Chr 23:6–7). The guards were apparently divided into shifts of three groups. The group on duty was assigned duties around the temple court; the other two groups were stationed at two protective gates, one leading to the public court of the palace from the temple. The king was brought into the temple court, anointed, and installed with the shout of the people. He received a diadem and the royal insignia as confirmation.

11:13–16 Athalia was close enough to all these proceedings, possibly in the palace, that the ceremony aroused her attention. When she saw the justly appointed king surrounded by the trumpeters and the leaders, she immediately recognized that she had been displaced as queen and would be executed. She was led away by force outside the temple area and put to death.

11:17–20 According to Deuteronomy there was to be a covenant relationship between king and people that included the king having a copy of the covenant words of Sinai. This seems to have taken place. The Baal temple and associated cult objects were destroyed, and its priest was killed.

11:21–12:8 Kings provides a positive assessment of the rule of Joash, with the caveat that he did not centralize all worship at the Jerusalem temple. Joash did make the repair of the temple a priority, at first attempting to do so through the priests. There were three sources of revenue: a census tax (Exod 30:11–16); a valuation in payment of vows (Lev 27:1–8); and the voluntary gifts brought to the temple. The priests had other personal income (designated by the unknown word makkar; cf. 2Kgs 12:16), which they were to contribute to repair. The temple was not repaired. When the king demanded they use their income for repair, they agreed not to accept money from the people, but they would not be responsible for repair.

12:9–16 The king made separate provision for funds designated specifically to temple repair through a collection box of dedicated voluntary offerings. Regular repairs were carried out by hired craftsmen, but major repairs were contracted out to specialists in wood and stone. None of the money was used for temple artifacts.

12:17–18 The Arameans also attempted to control western Palestine and to that end conquered fortifications of the Philistines. From there they had direct access to Jerusalem. Joash became subject in paying tribute, the goal of the Arameans.

12:19–21 Joash died by assassination in a conspiracy within his own court. According to 2 Chronicles 24:25, he was killed while recovering from wounds inflicted by the Arameans.

13:1–9 The purge of Jehu severely weakened the Israelite forces, allowing for Aramean decimation of the country into the reign of his son Jehoahaz. This is the only instance of a northern king seeking Yahweh for relief. “Deliverer” is the expression used of leaders sent in the days of the judges; this must have been a leader of that type, but he is not more closely identified. The chariotry of Jehoahaz was a fragment of the force of 2,000 chariots of Ahab against the Assyrians at Qarqar.

13:10–13 The main events of the reign of Joash are reported at the end of the chapter as part of the Ahaziah narrative. With rising Assyrian power under Adad-nirari III, Aramean power began to weaken while the state of Israel gradually strengthened.

13:14–19 The place where Jehoash went to see Elisha may have been his home at Abel-meholah on the Jabbok River. The chariots of Israel are reminiscent of the heavenly cavalry that took Elijah to heaven. Through a symbolic action, the prophet promised that the king would strike the Arameans at Aphek, as Ahab had done (cf. 1Kgs 20), but his victory would not be complete.

13:20–21 The ministry of Elisha began with the taunt of death to those who denied he was truly a prophet (2Kgs 2:23–25). It ends with an example of his life-giving power as a prophet of Israel, recognized even by foreign kings.

13:22–25 The account of the reign of Jehoash is given as part of the Elisha narrative. With the conquest at Aphek, Jehoash was able to overcome Aramean power to the west of the Jordan and restore some of the cities on the border with the Philistines that the Arameans had come to control (cf. 12:18). Jehoash is mentioned in a tribute list of the Assyrian Adadnirari III, along with Tyre and Sidon. The tribute demand must have been for a brief period. The Assyrians were rising in power over the Aramean territories, enabling Israel to gain independence.

14:1–4 Amaziah is given a long reign of twenty-nine years, which may be explained by the notice that he reigned fifteen years after the death of the king of Israel (14:17), meaning the reign of Jehoash (see chronological chart). He suffered a severe loss to Jehoash king of Israel (14:11–14). Leading citizens placed his son Azariah on the throne as regent, and Ahaziah continued only as a titular king.

14:5–6 Amaziah is credited with following the instruction of Moses in dealing with the resisters who had killed his father, Joash (Deut 24:16). This was contrary to the customary practice of kings dealing with their rivals, who killed all the potential resisters. The exception is properly stressed.

14:7 The attack against Edom was apparently initiated by Amaziah (cf. 2Chr 25:11). The Rock (sela`) was given the enduring name Joktheel. It has often been identified with Petra (el-Habis), but it is not likely that Amaziah penetrated that far south. The important port of Elath (2Kgs 14:22) was not taken until much later.

14:8–14 Amaziah’s dispute with the king of Israel was apparently over border cities that had been raided by Israelite soldiers (2Chr 25:13). The decisive battle was at Beth-shemesh at the edge of the coastal plain protecting an ascent to Jerusalem. He entered into a disastrous war with Jehoash, which ended with an invasion of Jerusalem when the whole northwestern section of the wall was torn down (from the Ephraim gate in the center to the corner gate on the western side). The treasuries of Judah were plundered and Amaziah taken captive.

14:15–17 The summary of the reign of Jehoash is given as part of the conclusion of the reign of Amaziah. This is a repetition of 2 Kings 13:12–13, where it anticipates the account of the promise he received from Elisha and his victory over the Arameans.

14:18–22 Amaziah’s enemies attempted to assassinate him, but he managed to flee to the fortified city of Lachish. He was not protected there but was killed and brought back to Jerusalem for burial. Azariah (Uzziah) was made king by popular consent. Azariah was able to rebuild Elath after the death of Amaziah, but the process had begun with his father, so the notice is included here. This port was important to international trade.

14:23–27 The reign of Jeroboam II restored Israel to the height of the territory it had enjoyed in the days of Solomon. Lebo Hamath is the general area to the south of Hamath that opens towards the Euphrates at the source of the Orontes River. The sea of the Arabah is east of the Dead Sea (Amos 6:13–14). National prophets like Jonah from Zebulon regarded the reign of Jehu as a deliverance for the most helpless in Israel. Amos on the other hand condemned the luxury of the nobles of Samaria, whose wealth was at the expense of the poor.

14:28–29 After the defeat of Amaziah, there seems to have emerged a cooperation between Israel and Judah that provided for mutual prosperity with the vast addition of territory. The Hebrew “Judah in Israel” is somehow corrupted. The simplest explanation is reference to territory for Judah and Israel (cf. NIV). (Iaudi as the Hebrew for a place in Sam’al of Aramea cannot be linguistically supported.) This was a long period of peace for Israel and Judah.

Azariah is assessed as being a good king, though Kings says nothing about the achievements of his fifty-two-year reign. Chronicles explains that he re-organized the military, developed his weaponry, improved the fortification of Jerusalem, and expanded his territory with the Philistines (2Chr 26:6–7, 11–14). He is the only king said to be a leper, a condition which excluded him from the palace, though he was not confined. As a result, both his son Jotham and grandson Ahaz shared in his reign (see chronological chart).

15:8–15 The very brief reign of Zechariah completed the fourth generation of the dynasty of Jehu (2Kgs 10:30). The decadence of Israel as proclaimed by Amos led to its disintegration, exactly as the prophet had said. His assassin, Shallum, was from Jabesh, a territory east of Jordan, an indication that the rivalries were territorial. Menahem was from Gad (15:17), also an eastern territory. He attacked Shallum from Tirzah, the capital of Jeroboam I and Baasha.

15:16–22 Menahem attacked Tappuah, according to the old Greek translation (the Hebrew text seems to be a wrong transliteration of the name), a city on the Benjamin border, killing all its citizens. This was likely in retaliation for resistance against his coup. Menahem was only able to achieve and maintain power with the help of the Assyrians. Pul is a common name for Tiglath-pilesar III (cf. 15:29), who gained extensive control over Syria. Menahem made tribute payments to Assyria for assistance in his warfare to gain the throne. The arrival of Tiglath-pilesar in Israel was not an invasion (15:19); Menahem used the occasion to ally the Assyrians for his own purposes at a high cost. This included an individual heavy tax. Fifty shekels of silver was the price of a slave according to Assyrian valuation at the time. This may have been payment for Assyrian soldiers. Assyrian records affirm this tribute in the Iran stele.

15:23–26 Pekahiah succeeded his father for only two years when he was assassinated by Pekah, apparently a Gileadite who attacked with a contingent of his soldiers (fifty men). Pekah’s total rule is given as twenty years, indicating that he had set up a rival rule in Gilead at the same time as when Menahem became king in Samaria. The chronological chart shows the correlations of the dates.

15:27–31 Pekah became king in Samaria the year Azariah died; the coincidence of events led the great prophet Isaiah to need affirmation concerning God’s direction (cf. Isa 6:1). Tiglath-pilesar directed a number of campaigns during the reign of Pekah and subjugated all of Israel except for a rump state of Samaria. This was the beginning of the Israelite exile to Assyria. Assyrian records indicate that they were responsible for the assassination of Pekah and the placement of Hoshea on the throne as their vassal.² Pekah and Rezin of Damascus had allied against Assyria (cf. 2Kgs 15:30).

The reign of Jotham was characterized by the threat of Assyria and attempts of Pekah and Rezin to resist it (cf. 2Kgs 15:37; Isa 7:1). His reign began in the second year of Pekah (2Kgs 15:30), but he lived beyond his sixteen-year reign until his twentieth year (15:30). A pro-Assyrian faction in Jerusalem resisted his alliance with Israel against Assyria and replaced him with Ahaz, who was committed to an alliance with Assyria (see chronological chart). He is remembered for repairing a temple gate mentioned in Jeremiah 20:2.

16:1–4 If Ahaz was twenty when he began to reign and reigned for sixteen years, then he had a son Hezekiah at age eleven (cf. 2Kgs 18:2). According to some Greek texts of 2 Chronicles 28:1, Ahaz began to reign at twenty-five. Passing sons through the fire was not a sacrifice (NIV) but a dedication of an infant to a foreign god involving a fire ceremony, a detestable practice.

16:5–9 Ahaz resisted the attempt of Israel and Syria to join their alliance against Assyria by means of a heavy bribe (shokhad), which stripped the royal treasuries (2Kgs 16:8). The Arameans controlled the territory all the way to the port of Elat, which returned to Edomite control.

16:10–20 Ahaz established an Aramean altar in the temple. This became the main altar of sacrifice for the regular offering. The bronze altar was moved to the north for the personal use of the king. Ahaz further dismantled the wheeled stands with their basins and took the great sea off its stand of bulls, placing it on the hewn stones of the court. The bronze was needed as part of the bribe to Assyria. The “Sabbath covering” is an unknown structure but may have been a separate hall to provide for the changing of the temple guards. The private entrance of the king was also rebuilt. All the temple changes were a cultural syncretism.

17:1–4 Hoshea is credited with not sinning as his predecessors. He rebelled against his vassal status and attempted to ally with Orsokon IV (So) of Egypt who ruled over the area of Tanis, adjacent to Palestine. The Egyptian military was weak, and Hoshea was taken captive by the Assyrians.

17:5–6 After a three-year siege, the city of Samaria was captured by the Assyrians. Sargon II reports taking over 27,000 prisoners as spoil. Israel became an Assyrian province.

This is the longest sermon in the Former Prophets that uses all the motifs, terminology, and theology found repeatedly in Deuteronomy. It is directed almost exclusively against the cultic practices of Israel under the leadership of its kings. These offenses were highlighted by the two calves of Jeroboam and the Asherah groves on the altar platforms (high places) with the accompanying stone pillar (17:10). They stubbornly rejected all the warnings of the prophets until they had suffered the ultimate judgment of death as a nation.

17:24–33 The exile of Sargon II and his successors had the goal of securing the coastal route to Egypt under his military control. The rump state of Samaria was important as a trading route. To that end Sargon replaced the people he had exiled with Arabs and people from regions in Syria and Assyria. The identity of the places and the various gods associated with them may not be specified, as there is a great deal of overlap in names. The re-settlement took place over many decades. Divine judgment came in the form of ravenous lions. To help accommodate the re-settlement, a priest was repatriated to Bethel. The new peoples simply added Yahweh to the various gods they served previously.

17:34–41 The phrase “until this day” divides the main units of this chapter (17:23, 34, 41). It is found in Deuteronomy and all the Former Prophets, designating the period until the destruction of the temple. The end of Israel is the occasion for a prophetic warning of violating the covenant. Redemption began in Egypt, but the neglect of the covenant in not serving God alone ended in death.

18:1–2 The correlation of the reign of Hezekiah with Hoshea is a contradiction with the attack of Sennacherib in his fourteenth year (18:13). The northern kingdom ended in 722 BC, and the attack of Sennacherib was in 701 BC. Most chronographers assume an error in scribal notations, but it may be that Hezekiah was appointed king during the days of Ahaz (see chronological chart), during stressful times of Assyrian attacks.

18:3–4 Hezekiah is the first king credited with centralizing all worship in Jerusalem, removing the high places. He also destroyed the fetish of the bronze serpent (identified by its name, which means “bronze” and “snake”), probably linked to the stopping of the plague in the exodus (cf. Num 21:9).

18:5–6 Hezekiah is given the highest praise of all the kings of Judah for his faithfulness despite his disastrous failure that led to the exile reported at the end of his account (2Kgs 20:16–19).

18:8–12 Hezekiah reversed the policy towards Assyria with careful preparations. This included the conquest of Philistine cities that were controlled by Assyria. It also involved fortifications in Jerusalem. The most notable was the construction of the Siloam tunnel to assure a continuous water supply (20:20). The record is preserved in the inscription found in the tunnel. The repetition of the fall of Samaria correlates its dates with Hezekiah (as co-regent) and serves as a warning that unfaithfulness would bring the same fate to Judah.

Resistance to Assyria came at a high price for Judah, but the city of Jerusalem remained secure. The raids on Judah are confirmed in the Rassam Cylinder, which reports the plunder of forty-six Judaean cities and over 200,000 taken captive along with large amounts of booty. Hezekiah was left “locked up in Jerusalem, his royal city, like a bird in a cage.”

18:17–19:7 The narrative provides a detailed account of the famous siege of Jerusalem during the time of the invasion of Judah. A large contingent of Assyrian troops was sent to Jerusalem during the time that Sennacherib laid siege to the city of Lachish. This is famously depicted in murals of the walls of the “palace without rival” in Nineveh. Lachish was on the border of Philistine territory protecting access to Jerusalem. The Rab-shakeh (field commander) was spokesman, perhaps because of his facility with language (18:26–28). He specifically attacked the faithfulness of Hezekiah and mocked his alliance with Egypt. He accused Hezekiah of betraying Yahweh by tearing down the high places.

19:8–34 After the conquest of Lachish, the Assyrian armies moved on to Libnah. They were further distracted by an Egyptian force led by Tirhakah, a leader from the deep south of Egypt (then known as Nubia). From Libnah threatening letters were sent to Hezekiah. The king spread these before the King of kings on the cherubim throne in the temple. The answer to his prayers came from Isaiah the prophet in his characteristic language, with the words of “the Holy One of Israel” (the only prophet to use that phrase). The Assyrian king had laid waste to the great cities and kings of the Arameans, but they trusted those that were not gods. Though the Assyrian had claimed to fell the great forests of Lebanon, he was the one who would be led away with a hook in his nose and a ring in his lips. The Assyrians would become like grass on a roof blasted by the east wind. The remnant of Judah (the famous phrase of Isaiah) would not only survive but take root and flourish. Not a shot would be fired in Jerusalem. God was protecting the promise to David.

19:35–37 Assyrian records say nothing of the plague that decimated their army and sent them away defeated. Assyrian records never admit defeat. But the assassination of Sennacherib by his sons is documented in the Babylonian Chronicle.

The two concluding stories of Hezekiah occur before the siege of Sennacherib, indicated both by the very general chronological association and the time of the rebellion of Babylon. Hezekiah found the announcement of his death very painful. His desire to live to praise God is expressed in the poem found in this story in Isaiah 38:9–20. Life is a daily gift bestowed by God; Hezekiah was granted an additional fifteen years. The prophet Isaiah promised that Jerusalem would be delivered for the sake of the promise to David and that he would be granted a sign. The reversal of the shadow from the time dial was an indication God had turned back the clock for the life of Hezekiah.

Merodach-baladan came to be king in Babylon during the turmoil that surrounded the death of Shalmaneser V, very early in Hezekiah’s reign. His interest in the earlier part of his reign was to establish alliances. Hezekiah completely contradicted the demands of the Torah in Deuteronomy that forbid kings from seeking help through alliances. Victory would always and only be through faith and trust in God. This betrayal was met with the harshest prophetic judgment. The descendants on David’s throne, Hezekiah’s own family, and the city would be taken into exile. Though the judgment did not take place until 150 years later, it was irreversible. Hezekiah accepted full responsibility but was also determined not to forfeit the opportunity of peace in his time granted by God.

The Siloam tunnel was remembered as Hezekiah’s greatest achievement amongst all his economic and military accomplishments. In the Talmud, Hezekiah comes to be eulogized as the king who will come again as the messiah.

Judah continued as a state with some measure of autonomy for almost 150 years from the fall of Samaria in 722 BC to the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BC. During that time, Judah reached a high point of covenant dedication under Josiah but was destined for exile following his death.

The fifty-five-year reign of Manasseh must have had about a ten-year overlap with Hezekiah, which seems likely if he became king at age twelve. His accession can be calculated back from the date of the captivity.

Manasseh stands out as an exceptionally apostate king between the covenant renewals of Hezekiah and Josiah. He also had the support of the leaders of Judah in following the abominations of the nations before him (2Kgs 21:9–11). He must have accommodated the Assyrians in having a copy of the Esarhaddon succession treaty in the most holy place, as was the case in the Syrian temple at Tayinat. His idolatrous practices included worship of astral deities and the practice of necromancy, communication with spirits of the dead through mediums. Idolatrous images were placed right in the temple. Children were dedicated to other gods (in a ceremony called passing through the fire). His reign was further characterized by violence against the poor, shedding innocent blood (21:16). The “plumb-line” of Samaria (21:13) was a graphic image to declare the result for Jerusalem, which would be the same as that of the northern capital.

The Chronicler records an imprisonment of Manasseh by the Assyrians (2Chr 33:11), after which he turned to the Lord and brought significant reforms to fortify Jerusalem. His purpose is to show that repentance and restoration are possible in even the worst of kings.

Ammon was born when his father was forty-five years old, making it unlikely that he was the oldest son. His mother was from Jotbah, a city in Galilee, indicating he had family connections to the former Israelite territory. No details are given about his assassination, but it probably was an anti-Assyrian faction in Jerusalem that wanted change. Whatever the goals of the conspirators were, their plot failed. The leadership of Judah killed him and installed his son Josiah as king.

22:1–2 The thirty-one-year reign of Josiah can be dated precisely because he died resisting the Egyptians in their campaign to the Euphrates against Haran (23:29–30), in resistance to the Assyrians (23:29–30). This is dated by the Babylonian Chronicle to the year 609 BC.³ Josiah began to reign in the year 640 BC.

22:3–20 Josiah undertook repairs to the temple after decades of neglect under the reign of Manasseh. Financing for such projects had been established previously (2Kgs 12:9–15). It is possible that the book of the Torah in the most holy place had been replaced by Assyrian treaties, as in other temples. Hilkiah was probably appointed by Josiah to oversee the task. The book found in the process of refurbishing was probably “this Torah” in Deuteronomy, the section from Deuteronomy 4:44–28:69. Moses commanded this be written down. Hulda belonged to priestly circles as the wife of Shallum, the keeper of the wardrobe (cf. 1Chr 6:12–13). He may have been the uncle of Jeremiah, who was instrumental in the reforms of Josiah (Jer 32:7). Hulda makes clear the curses that rested on the nation. The only course of action could be repentance and covenant renewal.

Josiah himself would not see the curses of the covenant. He would receive a proper burial in Jerusalem, though he did die a violent death.

23:1–20 This is the only time the instructions of Moses for the covenant are expressly carried out (Deut 31:11–13). Such an oath of loyalty made all the instruction of “this law” the ruling constitution of the entire nation. This included the eradication of all the abominations repeatedly mentioned in Kings, along with others mentioned here, such as the dedication of horses to the sun god. The high places were destroyed along with the bones of their priests, as had been prophesied in the days of Jeroboam I (1Kgs 13:3). The priests in the north were killed, unlike those around the city of Jerusalem (cf. 2Kgs 23:9, 20). Idolatrous items were ground up and burned like the golden calf (Exod 32:20). Josiah allowed worship only at the temple in Jerusalem.

23:21–23 Josiah for the first time prepared a Passover at the one central location in Jerusalem as required in Deuteronomy 16:5–6. Passover began as a festival meal celebrated by each family.

23:24–25 Josiah purged the country of the mediums consulting ghosts and spirits as well as the household idols (teraphim) and other abominable practices. He is commended as no other king in his purification.

23:26–27 The effect of the sins of Manasseh could not be atoned by the changes instituted by Josiah. Judah and Jerusalem remained under the curse of death.

23:28–30 Megiddo was a major fortified city in the territory of Samaria. With the failing Assyrian army, Josiah apparently hoped to re-integrate this territory with Judah. The Egyptian intent was to take control of Assyrian territory. Josiah was killed and brought back to Jerusalem.

At the death of Josiah, civic officials assumed leadership and placed his son on the throne. The campaign of Neco lasted three months. Jehoahaz was imprisoned at Riblah, an Assyrian administrative center on the Orontes River. Neco laid an indemnity tax on Judah, making it a territory of Egypt. Jehoahaz was prisoner and died in Egypt. When Pharaoh Neco successfully returned from Haran, he made Eliakim king. He changed his name to Jehoiakim.

Jehoiakim ruled until the first exiles from Jerusalem were taken to Babylon in 598 BC. Ezekiel was among these, and it was from Babylon that he sent his prophetic judgments against the temple.

The rule of Egypt ended when the Babylonians conquered Carchemish in 605 BC (Jer 46:2). A short time later, the Babylonians invaded as far as Ashkelon, a Philistine city. This resulted in lamentation and fasting in Judah (Jer 36:9). Neco attempted to control Palestine as far as Gaza (Jer 47:1), which was the opportunity Jehoiakim took to revolt against his subjugation to Babylon (2Kgs 24:1). According to the Babylonian Chronicle, Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem in his seventh year. Allied with him were troops from Aram, Ammon, and Moab.

The expedition of Nebuchadnezzar was punitive because Jehoiakim had violated his loyalty to Babylon. But in the prophetic view, it was a divine judgment because the sins committed by Manasseh could no longer be reversed.

Jehoiakim was succeeded by his eighteen-year-old son, whose reign lasted only three months. He surrendered to Nebuchadnezzar, thus sparing the city, but he was taken into exile in Babylon (24:11–12). Exiled with him were all the leading officials, the upper classes of society, and the skilled workers. The temple and the palace were emptied of their treasures.

Nebuchadnezzar placed the youngest son of Josiah on the throne. His name was Mattaniah, but he was given the throne name Zedekiah. It was his fate to be captured, blinded, and exiled with the fall of Jerusalem eleven years later.

Six vignettes tell of the end of Judah and Jerusalem, including a brief record of its last king, the doom of the king and the city, and the chaos after the deportations, concluding with clemency shown to Jehoiachin. Seven sons were born to him in exile (1Chr 3:17–18), so the Davidic line continued through Josiah. Zerubbabel was leader in the post-exilic period.

24:18–20 Zedekiah was made king as a sworn vassal of the Babylonians. His rebellion was probably to become an ally of Pharaoh Psammetichus II in resisting Babylon advances in a campaign to Phoenicia in 591 BC.

25:1–7 The city of Jerusalem was under siege for about a year and a half. By that time the famine in the city had become severe and the wall was breached. The king and his entourage fled to Jericho, perhaps attempting to find refuge in Ammon. They were captured and taken to the military headquarters at Riblah. The Babylonians killed all Zedekiah’s sons, ensuring there would be no further revolts.

25:8–17 Jerusalem was destroyed completely. Of greatest interest were all the items of the temple, items described in Solomon’s construction (see 1Kgs 7). All the temple vessels, the enormous sea, and the wheeled stands were broken and taken as booty. The weight is said to have been beyond calculation.

25:18–20 The highest-ranking officials of the administration of the temple were all taken captive and brought to the military headquarters at Riblah, including all the royal officials personally assisting the king. The commander of the army and sixty of the leaders were taken captive. The state of Judah was completely incapacitated.

Gedaliah belonged to a prominent noble family; his grandfather was a scribe during the days of Josiah (2Kgs 22:3). Jeremiah supported Gedaliah when he was appointed governor at Mizpah (Jer 39:14). A revolt against the Judahite and Babylonian leadership at Mizpah was led by Ishmael, a surviving member of the royal family. They murdered not only the leaders but also eighty men coming from Shechem and Shiloh to bring offerings as a rite of mourning (Jer 41:5–7). It likely was a revenge against those regarded as having betrayed Judah.

The people of Judah, fearful of the revenge of the Babylonians, fled to Egypt, forcing Jeremiah and Baruch to go with them (Jer 43:4–7). The judgment of exile was carried out fully. With the death of Gedaliah, all national existence was extinguished.

Jehoiachin was held as a political prisoner of Nebuchadnezzar. At Nebuchadnezzar’s death amnesty was granted to such prisoners. Jehoiachin was released by Amel-marduk, a successor in Babylon who reigned for only two years (561–560 BC). He was granted a favored status in relation to other captive kings. He was confined to the court of the Babylonian king.

This chronology depends on a system of dual dating and co-regencies. Dual dating means the synchronism is given according to the accession of sole reign, while the total years include the years of co-regency. The total years of the reigns in Kings are much more than the actual years of the chronology. Correlation of the dates also indicates that Israel began its year in the spring, while Judah began the new year in the fall.

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Cogan, Mordechai. I Kings: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Anchor Bible 10. New York: Doubleday, 2000.

Cogan, Mordecai and Hayim Tadmor, II Kings: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. New York: Doubleday, 1988.

Cogan, Mordechai. The Raging Torrent: Historical Inscriptions from Assyria and Babylonia Relating to Ancient Israel. Jerusalem: Carta, 2008.

Jost, Lynn. 1 & 2 Kings. Believers Church Bible Commentary 34. Harrisonburg VA: Herald Press, 2021.

King, Philip J., Amos, Hosea, Micah—An Archaeological Commentary. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1988.

Konkel, August H. 1 & 2 Kings. The NIV Application Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006.

Stern, Ephraim. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: That Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Periods (732–332 B.C.E.). Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, Vol II. New Haven: Hale University Press, 2001.

Thiele, Edwin R. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings. 3d ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1983.

Wiseman, Donald. 1 & 2 Kings: An Introduction and Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries. Downer’s Grove, IL. Inter-Varsity Press, 1993.

1. A translation of the text with references to biblical passages and commentary is provide by K. Lawson Younger, Jr. in Context of Scripture: Monumental Inscriptions from the Biblical World, vol. 2 (ed. William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger, Leiden: Brill, 2003), 2.113A.

2. All Assyrian references relevant to Kings may be conveniently consulted with translation and explanation in a compilation by Mordechai Cogan, The Raging Torrent (Jerusalem: Carta, 2008), 63. The reference to Hoshea is in a summary inscription.

3. D. J. Wiseman published these tablets in Chronicles of Chaldaean Kings (626–556 B.C.) in the British Museum (London: The trustees of the British Museum, 1961). These tablets have been critical to establishing the chronology and the events of the last days of Judah.

The text of 2 Kings, excluding all Bible quotations, is © 2023 by The Gospel Coalition. The Gospel Coalition (TGC) gives you permission to reproduce this work in its entirety, without any changes, in English for noncommercial distribution throughout the world. All Scripture quotations, unless otherwise indicated, are the author’s own translation.